![[info]](http://l-stat.livejournal.com/img/userinfo.gif){kind=small}
On this day in 1951, Paris, the capital city of France, celebrates turning 2,000 years old. In fact, a few more candles wouldve technically been required on the birthday cake, as the City of Lights was most likely founded around 250 B.C.
The history of Paris can be traced back to a Gallic tribe known as the Parisii, who sometime around 250 B.C. settled an island (known today as Ile de la Cite) in the Seine River, which runs through present-day Paris. By 52 B.C., Julius Caesar and the Romans had taken over the area, which eventually became Christianized and known as Lutetia, Latin for midwater dwelling. The settlement later spread to both the left and right banks of the Seine and the name Lutetia was replaced with In 987 A.D., Paris became the capital of France. As the city grew, the Left Bank earned a reputation as the intellectual district while the Right Bank became known for business.
During the French Renaissance period, from the late 15th century to the early 17th century, Paris became a center of art, architecture and science. In the mid-1800s, Napoleon III hired civic planner Georges-Eugene Hausmann to modernize Paris. Hausmanns designs gave the city wide, tree-lined boulevards, large public parks, a new sewer system and other public works projects. The city continued to develop as an important hub for the arts and culture. In the 1860s, an artistic movement known as French Impression emerged, featuring the work of a group of Paris-based artists that included Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
Today, Paris is home to some 2 million residents, with an additional 10 million people living in the surrounding metropolitan area. The city retains its reputation as a center for food, fashion, commerce and culture. Paris also continues to be one of the worlds most popular tourist destinations, renowned for such sights as the Eiffel Tower (built in 1889 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution), the Arc de Triomphe, the Champs-Elysees, Notre Dame Cathedral (built in 1163), Luxembourg Gardens and the Louvre Museum, home to Leonardo da Vincis painting Mona Lisa.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
The history of Paris can be traced back to a Gallic tribe known as the Parisii, who sometime around 250 B.C. settled an island (known today as Ile de la Cite) in the Seine River, which runs through present-day Paris. By 52 B.C., Julius Caesar and the Romans had taken over the area, which eventually became Christianized and known as Lutetia, Latin for midwater dwelling. The settlement later spread to both the left and right banks of the Seine and the name Lutetia was replaced with In 987 A.D., Paris became the capital of France. As the city grew, the Left Bank earned a reputation as the intellectual district while the Right Bank became known for business.
During the French Renaissance period, from the late 15th century to the early 17th century, Paris became a center of art, architecture and science. In the mid-1800s, Napoleon III hired civic planner Georges-Eugene Hausmann to modernize Paris. Hausmanns designs gave the city wide, tree-lined boulevards, large public parks, a new sewer system and other public works projects. The city continued to develop as an important hub for the arts and culture. In the 1860s, an artistic movement known as French Impression emerged, featuring the work of a group of Paris-based artists that included Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
Today, Paris is home to some 2 million residents, with an additional 10 million people living in the surrounding metropolitan area. The city retains its reputation as a center for food, fashion, commerce and culture. Paris also continues to be one of the worlds most popular tourist destinations, renowned for such sights as the Eiffel Tower (built in 1889 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution), the Arc de Triomphe, the Champs-Elysees, Notre Dame Cathedral (built in 1163), Luxembourg Gardens and the Louvre Museum, home to Leonardo da Vincis painting Mona Lisa.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:More emotions
- Music:Black Eyed Peas
To commemorate the 2000th anniversary of the loss of legions XVII, XVIII (aka XIIX) and XIX somewhere in northern Germany, we are publishing a special issue outside of the normal series. The Ancient Warfare Special 2009 will be a 76 page full color booklet at A4 (10*12") size fully dedicated to the battle of the Teutoburg forest. It will contain articles on, among others, the Roman and Germanic soldiers, the sources, the search for the battlefield and of course there will be plenty of content about the campaigns in Germania, the battle and its aftermath. All illustrated with photography, original artwork and maps, of course.
You can order it in our shop now for 17,95 euros excl.P P.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
You can order it in our shop now for 17,95 euros excl.P P.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:Good
- Music:Black Eyed Peas
The Connecticut region was inhabited by the Mohegan tribe prior to European colonization. The first European explorer in Connecticut was the Dutch explorer Adriaen Block. After he explored this region in 1614, Dutch fur traders sailed up the Connecticut River (then known by the Dutch as Versche Rivier - Fresh River) and built a fort at Dutch Point near present-day Hartford, which they called House of Hope (Dutch: Huis van Hoop).John Winthrop, then of Massachusetts, received permission to create a new colony at Old Saybrook at the mouth of the Connecticut River in 1635. This was the first of three distinct colonies that later would be combined to make up Connecticut. Saybrook Colony was a direct challenge to Dutch claims. The colony was not more than a small outpost and never matured. In 1644, the Saybrook Colony merged itself into the Connecticut Colony.The first English settlers came in 1633 and settled at Windsor and then Wethersfield in 1634. However, the main body of settlers came in one large group in 1636. The settlers were Puritans from Massachusetts, led by Thomas Hooker. Hooker had been prominent in England, and was a professor of theology at Cambridge. He was also an important political writer, and made a significant contribution to Constitutional theory. He broke with the political leadership in Massachusetts, and, just as Roger Williams created a new polity in Rhode Island, Hooker and his cohort did the same and established the Connecticut Colony at Hartford in 1636. This was the second of the three colonies.The third colony was founded in March 1638. New Haven Colony, (originally known as the Quinnipiack Colony), was established by John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton and others at New Haven. The New Haven Colony had its own Constitution, The Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony which was signed on 4 June 1639.Because the Dutch were outnumbered by the flood of English settlers from Massachusetts, they left their fort in 1654.Neither the establishment of the Connecticut Colony or the Quinnipiack Colony were done with the sanction of British imperial authorities, and were independent political entities. They naturally were presumptively English, but in a legal sense, they were only secessionist outposts of Massachusetts Bay. In 1662, Winthrop took advantage of this void in political affairs, and obtained in England the charter by which the colonies of Connecticut and Quinnipiack were united. Although Winthrops charter favored the Connecticut colony, New Haven remained a seat of government with Hartford, until after the American Revolution.Winthrop was very politically astute, and secured the charter from the newly restored Charles II; who granted the most liberal political terms.Historically important colonial settlements included:Its first constitution, the Fundamental Orders, was adopted on January 14, 1639, while its current constitution, the third for Connecticut, was adopted in 1965. Connecticut is the fifth of the original thirteen states. The original constitutions influenced the US Constitution as one of the leading authors was Roger Sherman of New Haven.The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to change over time. According to the Hartford Treaty with the Dutch, signed on September 19, 1650, but never ratified by the British, the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from Greenwich Bay for a distance of 20 Miles[20][21] provided the said line come not within 10 miles (16 km) [16 km] of Hudson River. This agreement was observed by both sides until war erupted between England and The Netherlands in 1652. No other limits were found. Conflict over uncertain colonial limits continued until the Duke of York captured New Netherland in 1664.[20][21] On the other hand, Connecticuts original Charter in 1662 granted it all the land to the South Sea, i.e. the Pacific Ocean.[22][23] Most colonial royal grants were for long east-west strips. Connecticut took its grant seriously, and established a ninth county between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers, named Westmoreland County. This resulted in the brief Pennamite Wars with Pennsylvania.Connecticuts lands also extended across northern Ohio, called the Western Reserve lands. The Western Reserve section was settled largely by people from Connecticut, and they brought Connecticut place names to Ohio. Agreements with Pennsylvania and New York extinguished the land claims by Connecticut within its neighbors, and the Western Reserve lands were relinquished to the federal government, which brought the state to its present boundaries.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:Good
- Music:K-MARO
Whose Culture, edited by James Cuno, and bears the subtitle "The Promise of Museums and the Debate Over Antiquities." Although it sounds like an argument that affects only a few people beyond archaeologists and museum curators, that's not the case. To use the type of hyperbolic language that normally grates on me, the issue is central to our times. It's at the heart of all the broad conflicts and modern contradictions that we face. As Michael F. Brown writes (p. 160) "local loyalties -- to family, to community -- are essential elements of global citizenship. In times of crisis, however, they readily slide into parochialism and xenophobia." In my world's simple, mundane terms, this is like the issue raised by Hillary Clinton during her husband's presidency. Does it take a village to raise a child? If so, does that mean that I should expect financial support from the village to feed and clothe my child? Should the U.S., during this global depression, be sending money overseas to help people in countries run by horrible governments?
A few of the contributors address the issue of the Bamiyan Buddhas. Sir John Boardman (p. 109) compares the act of the Taliban with that of Moses when he destroyed Aaron's Golden Calf. What a thought-provoking issue! Why shouldn't the Taliban have destroyed what they considered idolatrous? We accept Moses' act as not only justified, but right. The Buddhas are in the land of the Taliban (at least to the extent of any group claiming that their material artifacts must be returned). Shouldn't they have their own freedom of religion? The greatest loss in the defaced Buddhas, Boardman asserts, is probably to the tourist trade (p. 108). Now, two weeks ago I would have felt differently, although not without some sense of ambiguity.
Kwame Anthony Appiah in the title chapter, "Whose Culture Is It?", addresses many of the paradoxes. He says "it's a painful irony that one reason we've lost information about cultural antiquities is the very regulation intended to preserve it." Mali, for instance, doesn't have enough money to take care of their artifacts. Should they be taken for safekeeping out of the country, they would be preserved, but they will likely be lost since they must remain in Malian territory because of the regulations. Appiah also addresses the idea that most art doesn't exist in a vacuum. Artists, including Picasso, who commented on the fact, copy. This means art is generally international. The Buddhas, rejected in Afghanistan as not part of their culture, are part of the Tibetan or Japanese Buddhist culture.
A point frequently mentioned in the pages of the book is that archaeologists who work on prehistoric sites may have a point that the site of the find gives paramount information, but this is not true of objets d'art from areas that had writing. A vase signed by the Euphronios painter contains a good deal of information that is more important than where it was found. Such works were sold and moved about. That adds nothing substantial to knowledge about the piece. To say that the site where found is at the heart of knowledge about all artifacts supports the elitist idea that an ordinary museum-goer doesn't have the background to appreciate an ancient work of art. To those who can read them or translations thereof, cuneiform tablets contain historically valid information quite apart from where they were unearthed. This makes it seem a bit like an historians vs archaeologists argument. Some of the contributors to the volume are archaeologists frustrated by the refusal of certain archaeological publications to include references to unprovenanced work, though, so it's not.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
A few of the contributors address the issue of the Bamiyan Buddhas. Sir John Boardman (p. 109) compares the act of the Taliban with that of Moses when he destroyed Aaron's Golden Calf. What a thought-provoking issue! Why shouldn't the Taliban have destroyed what they considered idolatrous? We accept Moses' act as not only justified, but right. The Buddhas are in the land of the Taliban (at least to the extent of any group claiming that their material artifacts must be returned). Shouldn't they have their own freedom of religion? The greatest loss in the defaced Buddhas, Boardman asserts, is probably to the tourist trade (p. 108). Now, two weeks ago I would have felt differently, although not without some sense of ambiguity.
Kwame Anthony Appiah in the title chapter, "Whose Culture Is It?", addresses many of the paradoxes. He says "it's a painful irony that one reason we've lost information about cultural antiquities is the very regulation intended to preserve it." Mali, for instance, doesn't have enough money to take care of their artifacts. Should they be taken for safekeeping out of the country, they would be preserved, but they will likely be lost since they must remain in Malian territory because of the regulations. Appiah also addresses the idea that most art doesn't exist in a vacuum. Artists, including Picasso, who commented on the fact, copy. This means art is generally international. The Buddhas, rejected in Afghanistan as not part of their culture, are part of the Tibetan or Japanese Buddhist culture.
A point frequently mentioned in the pages of the book is that archaeologists who work on prehistoric sites may have a point that the site of the find gives paramount information, but this is not true of objets d'art from areas that had writing. A vase signed by the Euphronios painter contains a good deal of information that is more important than where it was found. Such works were sold and moved about. That adds nothing substantial to knowledge about the piece. To say that the site where found is at the heart of knowledge about all artifacts supports the elitist idea that an ordinary museum-goer doesn't have the background to appreciate an ancient work of art. To those who can read them or translations thereof, cuneiform tablets contain historically valid information quite apart from where they were unearthed. This makes it seem a bit like an historians vs archaeologists argument. Some of the contributors to the volume are archaeologists frustrated by the refusal of certain archaeological publications to include references to unprovenanced work, though, so it's not.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:smile
- Music:Sum 41
The Removing of the Lampstand
When and How, The Apostasy
John writes in Revelation 1:12-13: “Then I turned to see the voice that spoke with me. And having turned I saw seven golden lampstands,and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to the feet and girded about the chest with a golden band.” Here John sees Christ glorified in his holy priestly garb. He is seen walking among the seven branch Menorah, like the Menorah in the Holy Place in the tabernacle. The fuel for its light was pure olive oil, which it needed to burn properly. This oil was to be fed into the lampstand and burn continuously on behalf of the children of Israel.
The lampstand in the Old Testament symbolized Jesus as the “Light of the World” that was to burn continually, giving its light in the Holy Place where the priest would be (John 1:7-9, 8:12, 9:5, 12:46; 2 Corinthians 4:6; Luke 1:78-79, 2:32; Revelation 21:23-24). The responsibility of the priests was to keep the lamp burning. They had to feed it oil and trim its wicks so it would not smoke, but continue to burn without failing to give pure light.
It also symbolized the believer, in that the believer is also called the “light of the World” (Mt.5:14-17). After Jesus ascended into heaven (John 9:5; Philippians 2:15; Luke 12:35; Ephesians 5:8-9) the believer is also called the “light of the world” (Matthew 5:14-17). For that reason the believer is also to walk in the light, i.e., His Word (I John 1:7). Therefore the lampstand can also be seen as a symbol of the Church, bringing the light to a world of darkness as representatives of Christ.
We see this motif continuing in Revelation 1:20: “The mystery of the seven stars which you saw in my right hand, and the seven golden lampstands: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands which you saw are the seven churches.” Revelation 1:20 tells us the seven stars are the angels of the seven churches. Whenever the word “stars” is used symbolically, it refers to angels. The seven lampstands are seven churches of which Christ is the head. Just as the oil lit up the whole Menorah (lampstand), so does the Holy Spirit illumine all the Churches. The seven individual lampstands symbolize the seven local churches which represent the whole of the Church, not just different ages of the Church. Revelation 1:4 said they already existed in Asia at the time of the writing of Revelation, they were not just future churches or representative of Church ages only. We can concede that these churches are examples of churches throughout all ages and that all seven can exist at the same time in type, as they have throughout history. The last church mentioned is Laodicea, during the latter times the Laodicean church would be dominant one. It is this Church that will be common in the end time and will usher in the apostasy.
Revelation 2:1: “To the angel of the church of Ephesus write, “These things says He who holds the seven stars in His right hand, who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands… “The Lord walks among the churches in all ages to know them. Jesus commends and rebukes them and gives a specific warning to this church in Revelation 2:5: “Remember therefore from where you have fallen; repent and do the first works, or else I will come to you quickly and remove your lampstand from its place unless you repent.” The removing of the church’s lampstand meant Christ’s Spirit would depart and leave them on their own, which in turn would result in them being as Laodicea (Laodicea means “men’s opinions ruling in place of God”). Loyalty to Christ can and often is replaced by loyalty to an organization, a church, and its leaders, substituting new rules and interpretations for Biblical truths. We can see this example in the cults.
We find that all the churches mentioned in Revelation exist at the same time, and we can find the faithful Church existing alongside the unfaithful Church today. But there is only one Church that will take over that will become the center of apostasy. The church of Laodicea has prepared the way for the great apostasy. It has kept Christ out of the Church and from His people. It has stood for nothing for so long that it has little effect on society, while at the same time it has allowed anything contrary to Christ’s teachings to come in. Today the world looks at this Church and excuses its sin, because there is no salt left for conviction. This Church became lukewarm, seeking unity with everyone, showing tolerance for any doctrinal aberration and interpreting it as love. It is reflective of a Church that at end of the age has come under the influence of the world instead of being an influence in the world. The world wonders why should it be judged if there is no substantial difference between it and the Church. But judgment begins in the House of God. The Lord is infinitely more concerned about His people than about the unbeliever. And so Jesus commends, warns and rebukes each church. Because God removes His lampstand from apostate churches they have resorted to worldly methods and techniques in order to continue to attract people. After all, one must keep the organizational wheels rolling!
The Laodicean church thought they were doing well and were spiritual. After all they were rich, so of course God must be blessing them. The wealthy mostly dress well and talk about their possessions to impress people. They focus on outward appearances and worldliness. But these people did not know their inward condition; they were blind and could not see. So the Lord asked if they would buy from Him gold refined in the fire (by their suffering) white garments (robes of salvation) and eye salve so they could see their condition. Today many see their success and prosperity as God’s blessing. The Laodicean Church was lukewarm. The Lord wanted them either cold or hot. Hot water was used for healing; cold was used for refreshment. Instead, they could not make up their mind, they were standing for nothing, and were good for nothing. They lived in both worlds. Spiritually they could have been either all for God or not at all, but they were in between. If they were hot, they would have been approved. If they were cold, God could have changed them, but they were in the middle and He was unable do anything. This is the worst place to be, to be part of a church, doing church things, thinking you are a Christian when in fact you are not. The Laodiceans had just enough religiosity to get by and think they were fine. They were naked also. In the time of Christ all soldiers would sleep in their clothes, they would not take them off so they would be ready for battle. We are to be clothed in white garments, the righteousness of Christ. Jesus was saying they did not have his righteousness they were naked. Yet even this church is not hopeless; Christ can come in to the individual if He is allowed, “As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten. Therefore be zealous and repent “(v.19). This is the only Church that He is outside of and offers to come to the individual in the Church and not the collective Church. Because the whole Church is removed from the truth of functioning in the word of God. This does not mean they abandon God’s word or name but only use portions of it that suit them, or change its meaning.
Many have identified the Apostasy as individuals departing from the Church. Certainly over the centuries many individuals that had begun in the Church left and started their own cult. However, this is only part of the picture as Jesus is addressing the Church He personally walks among. In modern times this falling away had started in liberal seminaries who sent teachers out to unsuspecting pulpits teaching their liberal ideas those who promote homosexuality, who ordain people that deny the Trinity, the deity of Christ, the virgin birth and the essentials of the faith. Then the new age movement began to emerge and infiltrate the Church with kingdom dominion theology and placing subjective experience over the authority of the objective Word of God. Then the homosexual movement came through the Episcopal church along with feminists who disdain God as father. Now this apostasy has become something so widespread it encompasses most things that are considered sacred. Affecting almost all denominations to some degree. Doctrines are distorted and abandoned, controlling shepherds are in charge, teaching coveting, wealth and perfect health as God’s will to all. They approve of divorce and accept homosexuality.
Among the parables of the kingdom in Matthew 13 is the parable of the leaven (Matthew 13:33), which depicts the course of this present Church age. It describes a progression of apostasy that radically escalates in the end. [“ Apostasy “ refers to falling away from the true Faith which finds its instruction by God's word]. Jesus describes a woman putting leaven into three measures of meal, “until the whole was leavened.” Leaven puffs up; it represents pride, it does the opposite of what the gospel does, which humbles man and makes us God-reliant. Paul said, “A little leaven leavens the whole lump.” Leaven in Scripture stands for sin and false teaching (1 Corinthians 5:6; Galatians 5:9), and the woman represents the Church. She did something God prohibits; she hid the leaven in the meal, mingling a foreign element into the body. This is speaking of a corrupting influence that would infiltrate all parts of the Church. As a little yeast, is hidden in the flour. It works silently until all the mass is brought under its influence. It shows evil existing till the end of the age, as things do not get better but worse. The parable tells us that the error which was first introduced by false teachers during the days of the Apostles (and was then small), will gradually increase through the centuries until, at the end, it is completed. And almost the entire Church will have been impacted in some way. By this characterization of leaven in the meal, believers are warned that false teaching will gradually increase through time until the entire church has been affected in some way. The ultimate fulfillment of this falling away is found in Revelation 17.
The Timing of the Apostasy
Paul writes to the Thessalonians about those who have tried to deceive them with a false teaching on the Tribulation that was upsetting the church. Apparently after Paul left Thessalonica some false teachers came in and upset the church by teaching that believers were now in the Tribulation (2 Thessalonians 2:1-2). They were being told that the Day of the Lord had come and that the rapture and resurrection had occurred, putting them in the Tribulation (The Day of the Lord is the most common title for the Great Tribulation1 Timothy 1:20; 2 Timothy 2:18).
The main point of Paul’s letter was to comfort the believers of Thessalonica who were already experiencing persecution (first letter) and also correct them, letting them know that they were not in the Tribulation. Paul then wanted to clarify what would precede the Tribulation. He pointed out that the mystery of lawlessness was still being restrained, and because of this the Antichrist’s unveiling was still in the future, prior to Christ’s return. The Antichrist would be revealed at that time.
Paul’s correction to the Church at Thessalonica came with the warning “Let no one deceive you.” It should seem obvious that Paul was not writing about our gathering together to Him Christ (v.3) before that that day. This gathering will not come first without two things happening prior to that: 1) The falling away would come first (then the day comes), 2) and the man of sin would be revealed. Here Paul is obviously talking about two different matters: our gathering together to Him (v.1) and a falling away (v.3). Paul states that the Day of the Lord will not come without the Apostasy coming first; that prior to Christ’s coming a falling away from the Faith will occur. Therefore he warns us who are living at the time, “Let no one deceive you”, giving the same warning Jesus did in the beginning of his discourse in Matthew 24.
As Paul mentions the coming of our Lord Jesus and also our gathering together to Him, (v.1) he appears to be indicating two events, distinguishing between two comings of Jesus (1 Thessalonians 3:13, tells us that when Jesus comes it is with the saints who have died). One coming is for His Church and the other with His Church, when He will judge a rebellious world and set up His kingdom reign on earth for 1,000 years with the saints under Him co-reigning.
2 Thessalonians 2:1, “And our gathering together to Him.” The Greek word for ‘gathering together’ is epi sunagogues. Epi means “above,” and sunagoges means“to collect together.” This is not a reference to our being gathered to Jesus after He descends to earth to set up His kingdom, but to our being gathered up to Him. We are called FROM ABOVE by the Lord to meet Him and be united together in the air and brought to the place He has already prepared (John14). Our gathering together up to Him is more accurately translated “our being gathered up to Him’” (1 Thessalonians 4:14). He is the object we go to; He does not come down to meet us on earth, we go up to Him first.
It hasnt been until modern times that the Rapture has been abandoned for earthly “triumphalism” and Christianizing the World first, before Christ could come. (Kingdom Now, Dominion Theology) This is all part of the falling away and not preparing or watching for His coming.
2 Thessalonians 2:3 says, “Let no one deceive you by any means; for that Day will not come unless the falling away comes first, and the man of sin is revealed, the son of perdition.” (In Matthew 24:4 Christ first warned of the deception of those who come in His name three times, but He also speaks of what will occur before the Abomination of Desolation.)
By deception Paul is giving a warning, just like Christ did. Paul refers to “tricks” of any kind, saying to be on guard. Christ’s return will not occur before certain important things take place, so the timing is important. In 2 Thessalonians 2:3 in the phrase “the falling away” the word Apostasia is used, which comes from the Greek verb aphistemi, which literally means, “to depart” or “revolt.” Paul spoke of another departure (1 Timothy 4:1) and used the same Greek word. However, in 1 Timothy Paul added the words “depart from the faith” instead of “depart” by itself, qualifying the phrase. Paul states the reason for their falling away:, because they are listening to demons, who are deceiving spirits. So they are being deceived by teachings that are contrary to the word of God and this is occurring inside the Church.
Greek scholar A.T Robertson writes of this word “Plutarch uses it of political revolt and it occurs in 1 Maccabees 2:15 about Antiochus Epiphanes who was enforcing the apostasy from Judaism to Hellenism. In Joshua 22:22 it occurs for rebellion against the Lord. It seems clear that the word here means a religious revolt and the use of the definite article (heô) seems to mean that Paul had spoken to the Thessalonians about it.
V.1 “Concerning the coming of Our Lord Jesus Christ and our gathering together unto Him,” will not happen until AFTER the Apostasy occurs. There is no other way to understand these words without changing the context for the words and the grammatical construction of this verse. Those who teach prophecy will rarely touch on this all-encompassing event, the falling away from the faith. Why not, when this falling away or apostasy is the main indication of the Church’s condition in the last hour? It will affect the Church more than anything else in history, but it is ignored and even questioned as a possible event. How can you teach on end time prophecy without it?
The apostasy of professing Christianity has increased with a momentum that is stunning to those watching its growth. It has gone off the Richter scale. In the absence of the lampstand ( the presence of Christ), devils have stepped in and taken over in many churches. This falling away has certainly begun and is picking up momentum each year, month, and week. Whole movements have arisen that draw huge crowds by catering to the natural mans desires and prey on his propensity of being deceived by the supernatural. They are being offered the very things Christ refused and warned against in his teachings.
The conflict that the Church once had with the World has been embraced and brought into the church. It has created a sharp division between traditional biblical purists and new revelation revivalists and liberal Christianity.
How did this all Happen.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
When and How, The Apostasy
John writes in Revelation 1:12-13: “Then I turned to see the voice that spoke with me. And having turned I saw seven golden lampstands,and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to the feet and girded about the chest with a golden band.” Here John sees Christ glorified in his holy priestly garb. He is seen walking among the seven branch Menorah, like the Menorah in the Holy Place in the tabernacle. The fuel for its light was pure olive oil, which it needed to burn properly. This oil was to be fed into the lampstand and burn continuously on behalf of the children of Israel.
The lampstand in the Old Testament symbolized Jesus as the “Light of the World” that was to burn continually, giving its light in the Holy Place where the priest would be (John 1:7-9, 8:12, 9:5, 12:46; 2 Corinthians 4:6; Luke 1:78-79, 2:32; Revelation 21:23-24). The responsibility of the priests was to keep the lamp burning. They had to feed it oil and trim its wicks so it would not smoke, but continue to burn without failing to give pure light.
It also symbolized the believer, in that the believer is also called the “light of the World” (Mt.5:14-17). After Jesus ascended into heaven (John 9:5; Philippians 2:15; Luke 12:35; Ephesians 5:8-9) the believer is also called the “light of the world” (Matthew 5:14-17). For that reason the believer is also to walk in the light, i.e., His Word (I John 1:7). Therefore the lampstand can also be seen as a symbol of the Church, bringing the light to a world of darkness as representatives of Christ.
We see this motif continuing in Revelation 1:20: “The mystery of the seven stars which you saw in my right hand, and the seven golden lampstands: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands which you saw are the seven churches.” Revelation 1:20 tells us the seven stars are the angels of the seven churches. Whenever the word “stars” is used symbolically, it refers to angels. The seven lampstands are seven churches of which Christ is the head. Just as the oil lit up the whole Menorah (lampstand), so does the Holy Spirit illumine all the Churches. The seven individual lampstands symbolize the seven local churches which represent the whole of the Church, not just different ages of the Church. Revelation 1:4 said they already existed in Asia at the time of the writing of Revelation, they were not just future churches or representative of Church ages only. We can concede that these churches are examples of churches throughout all ages and that all seven can exist at the same time in type, as they have throughout history. The last church mentioned is Laodicea, during the latter times the Laodicean church would be dominant one. It is this Church that will be common in the end time and will usher in the apostasy.
Revelation 2:1: “To the angel of the church of Ephesus write, “These things says He who holds the seven stars in His right hand, who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands… “The Lord walks among the churches in all ages to know them. Jesus commends and rebukes them and gives a specific warning to this church in Revelation 2:5: “Remember therefore from where you have fallen; repent and do the first works, or else I will come to you quickly and remove your lampstand from its place unless you repent.” The removing of the church’s lampstand meant Christ’s Spirit would depart and leave them on their own, which in turn would result in them being as Laodicea (Laodicea means “men’s opinions ruling in place of God”). Loyalty to Christ can and often is replaced by loyalty to an organization, a church, and its leaders, substituting new rules and interpretations for Biblical truths. We can see this example in the cults.
We find that all the churches mentioned in Revelation exist at the same time, and we can find the faithful Church existing alongside the unfaithful Church today. But there is only one Church that will take over that will become the center of apostasy. The church of Laodicea has prepared the way for the great apostasy. It has kept Christ out of the Church and from His people. It has stood for nothing for so long that it has little effect on society, while at the same time it has allowed anything contrary to Christ’s teachings to come in. Today the world looks at this Church and excuses its sin, because there is no salt left for conviction. This Church became lukewarm, seeking unity with everyone, showing tolerance for any doctrinal aberration and interpreting it as love. It is reflective of a Church that at end of the age has come under the influence of the world instead of being an influence in the world. The world wonders why should it be judged if there is no substantial difference between it and the Church. But judgment begins in the House of God. The Lord is infinitely more concerned about His people than about the unbeliever. And so Jesus commends, warns and rebukes each church. Because God removes His lampstand from apostate churches they have resorted to worldly methods and techniques in order to continue to attract people. After all, one must keep the organizational wheels rolling!
The Laodicean church thought they were doing well and were spiritual. After all they were rich, so of course God must be blessing them. The wealthy mostly dress well and talk about their possessions to impress people. They focus on outward appearances and worldliness. But these people did not know their inward condition; they were blind and could not see. So the Lord asked if they would buy from Him gold refined in the fire (by their suffering) white garments (robes of salvation) and eye salve so they could see their condition. Today many see their success and prosperity as God’s blessing. The Laodicean Church was lukewarm. The Lord wanted them either cold or hot. Hot water was used for healing; cold was used for refreshment. Instead, they could not make up their mind, they were standing for nothing, and were good for nothing. They lived in both worlds. Spiritually they could have been either all for God or not at all, but they were in between. If they were hot, they would have been approved. If they were cold, God could have changed them, but they were in the middle and He was unable do anything. This is the worst place to be, to be part of a church, doing church things, thinking you are a Christian when in fact you are not. The Laodiceans had just enough religiosity to get by and think they were fine. They were naked also. In the time of Christ all soldiers would sleep in their clothes, they would not take them off so they would be ready for battle. We are to be clothed in white garments, the righteousness of Christ. Jesus was saying they did not have his righteousness they were naked. Yet even this church is not hopeless; Christ can come in to the individual if He is allowed, “As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten. Therefore be zealous and repent “(v.19). This is the only Church that He is outside of and offers to come to the individual in the Church and not the collective Church. Because the whole Church is removed from the truth of functioning in the word of God. This does not mean they abandon God’s word or name but only use portions of it that suit them, or change its meaning.
Many have identified the Apostasy as individuals departing from the Church. Certainly over the centuries many individuals that had begun in the Church left and started their own cult. However, this is only part of the picture as Jesus is addressing the Church He personally walks among. In modern times this falling away had started in liberal seminaries who sent teachers out to unsuspecting pulpits teaching their liberal ideas those who promote homosexuality, who ordain people that deny the Trinity, the deity of Christ, the virgin birth and the essentials of the faith. Then the new age movement began to emerge and infiltrate the Church with kingdom dominion theology and placing subjective experience over the authority of the objective Word of God. Then the homosexual movement came through the Episcopal church along with feminists who disdain God as father. Now this apostasy has become something so widespread it encompasses most things that are considered sacred. Affecting almost all denominations to some degree. Doctrines are distorted and abandoned, controlling shepherds are in charge, teaching coveting, wealth and perfect health as God’s will to all. They approve of divorce and accept homosexuality.
Among the parables of the kingdom in Matthew 13 is the parable of the leaven (Matthew 13:33), which depicts the course of this present Church age. It describes a progression of apostasy that radically escalates in the end. [“ Apostasy “ refers to falling away from the true Faith which finds its instruction by God's word]. Jesus describes a woman putting leaven into three measures of meal, “until the whole was leavened.” Leaven puffs up; it represents pride, it does the opposite of what the gospel does, which humbles man and makes us God-reliant. Paul said, “A little leaven leavens the whole lump.” Leaven in Scripture stands for sin and false teaching (1 Corinthians 5:6; Galatians 5:9), and the woman represents the Church. She did something God prohibits; she hid the leaven in the meal, mingling a foreign element into the body. This is speaking of a corrupting influence that would infiltrate all parts of the Church. As a little yeast, is hidden in the flour. It works silently until all the mass is brought under its influence. It shows evil existing till the end of the age, as things do not get better but worse. The parable tells us that the error which was first introduced by false teachers during the days of the Apostles (and was then small), will gradually increase through the centuries until, at the end, it is completed. And almost the entire Church will have been impacted in some way. By this characterization of leaven in the meal, believers are warned that false teaching will gradually increase through time until the entire church has been affected in some way. The ultimate fulfillment of this falling away is found in Revelation 17.
The Timing of the Apostasy
Paul writes to the Thessalonians about those who have tried to deceive them with a false teaching on the Tribulation that was upsetting the church. Apparently after Paul left Thessalonica some false teachers came in and upset the church by teaching that believers were now in the Tribulation (2 Thessalonians 2:1-2). They were being told that the Day of the Lord had come and that the rapture and resurrection had occurred, putting them in the Tribulation (The Day of the Lord is the most common title for the Great Tribulation1 Timothy 1:20; 2 Timothy 2:18).
The main point of Paul’s letter was to comfort the believers of Thessalonica who were already experiencing persecution (first letter) and also correct them, letting them know that they were not in the Tribulation. Paul then wanted to clarify what would precede the Tribulation. He pointed out that the mystery of lawlessness was still being restrained, and because of this the Antichrist’s unveiling was still in the future, prior to Christ’s return. The Antichrist would be revealed at that time.
Paul’s correction to the Church at Thessalonica came with the warning “Let no one deceive you.” It should seem obvious that Paul was not writing about our gathering together to Him Christ (v.3) before that that day. This gathering will not come first without two things happening prior to that: 1) The falling away would come first (then the day comes), 2) and the man of sin would be revealed. Here Paul is obviously talking about two different matters: our gathering together to Him (v.1) and a falling away (v.3). Paul states that the Day of the Lord will not come without the Apostasy coming first; that prior to Christ’s coming a falling away from the Faith will occur. Therefore he warns us who are living at the time, “Let no one deceive you”, giving the same warning Jesus did in the beginning of his discourse in Matthew 24.
As Paul mentions the coming of our Lord Jesus and also our gathering together to Him, (v.1) he appears to be indicating two events, distinguishing between two comings of Jesus (1 Thessalonians 3:13, tells us that when Jesus comes it is with the saints who have died). One coming is for His Church and the other with His Church, when He will judge a rebellious world and set up His kingdom reign on earth for 1,000 years with the saints under Him co-reigning.
2 Thessalonians 2:1, “And our gathering together to Him.” The Greek word for ‘gathering together’ is epi sunagogues. Epi means “above,” and sunagoges means“to collect together.” This is not a reference to our being gathered to Jesus after He descends to earth to set up His kingdom, but to our being gathered up to Him. We are called FROM ABOVE by the Lord to meet Him and be united together in the air and brought to the place He has already prepared (John14). Our gathering together up to Him is more accurately translated “our being gathered up to Him’” (1 Thessalonians 4:14). He is the object we go to; He does not come down to meet us on earth, we go up to Him first.
It hasnt been until modern times that the Rapture has been abandoned for earthly “triumphalism” and Christianizing the World first, before Christ could come. (Kingdom Now, Dominion Theology) This is all part of the falling away and not preparing or watching for His coming.
2 Thessalonians 2:3 says, “Let no one deceive you by any means; for that Day will not come unless the falling away comes first, and the man of sin is revealed, the son of perdition.” (In Matthew 24:4 Christ first warned of the deception of those who come in His name three times, but He also speaks of what will occur before the Abomination of Desolation.)
By deception Paul is giving a warning, just like Christ did. Paul refers to “tricks” of any kind, saying to be on guard. Christ’s return will not occur before certain important things take place, so the timing is important. In 2 Thessalonians 2:3 in the phrase “the falling away” the word Apostasia is used, which comes from the Greek verb aphistemi, which literally means, “to depart” or “revolt.” Paul spoke of another departure (1 Timothy 4:1) and used the same Greek word. However, in 1 Timothy Paul added the words “depart from the faith” instead of “depart” by itself, qualifying the phrase. Paul states the reason for their falling away:, because they are listening to demons, who are deceiving spirits. So they are being deceived by teachings that are contrary to the word of God and this is occurring inside the Church.
Greek scholar A.T Robertson writes of this word “Plutarch uses it of political revolt and it occurs in 1 Maccabees 2:15 about Antiochus Epiphanes who was enforcing the apostasy from Judaism to Hellenism. In Joshua 22:22 it occurs for rebellion against the Lord. It seems clear that the word here means a religious revolt and the use of the definite article (heô) seems to mean that Paul had spoken to the Thessalonians about it.
V.1 “Concerning the coming of Our Lord Jesus Christ and our gathering together unto Him,” will not happen until AFTER the Apostasy occurs. There is no other way to understand these words without changing the context for the words and the grammatical construction of this verse. Those who teach prophecy will rarely touch on this all-encompassing event, the falling away from the faith. Why not, when this falling away or apostasy is the main indication of the Church’s condition in the last hour? It will affect the Church more than anything else in history, but it is ignored and even questioned as a possible event. How can you teach on end time prophecy without it?
The apostasy of professing Christianity has increased with a momentum that is stunning to those watching its growth. It has gone off the Richter scale. In the absence of the lampstand ( the presence of Christ), devils have stepped in and taken over in many churches. This falling away has certainly begun and is picking up momentum each year, month, and week. Whole movements have arisen that draw huge crowds by catering to the natural mans desires and prey on his propensity of being deceived by the supernatural. They are being offered the very things Christ refused and warned against in his teachings.
The conflict that the Church once had with the World has been embraced and brought into the church. It has created a sharp division between traditional biblical purists and new revelation revivalists and liberal Christianity.
How did this all Happen.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:Christina Aguilera
I highly recommend The Bloody White Baron by James Palmer, the horrifying true story of White Russian calvaryman who became master of Mongolia in 1921, and led a half-Buddhist army on a murderous rampage.
Baron Ungern-Sternberg was a ethnic German who grew up in Estonia, then part of Tsarist Russia. He became a cavalryman in a Cossack unit in the far east of Siberia, leading troops that included a significant number of Buriat Mongols who were subject of the Tsar. A staunch monarchist, after the Bosheviks took power in 1917, Ungern-Sternberg became a leader of the White (anti-Red Army) forces in Siberia. By 1920, the White cause had collapsed, and Ungern-Sternberg led his troops across the border to Outer Mongolia, which had historically been a dependency of China, and only declared its independence in 1911.
Taking over Mongolia with a force of several thousand men, Ungern-Sternberg ordered executions willy-nilly, including the extermination of all Jews in Mongolia (amounting to a couple hundred emigres from Russia). His medical staff killed hard-to-treat patients, and he killed children along with their parents, to prevent them from growing up with revenge on their mind. In 1921, the Bolsheviks, concerned about Mongolia serving as a base for counterrevolution, sent a force to meet Ungern-Sternberg, defeated him in battle and executed him.
While Ungern-Sternberg fought for Russia, he anticipated the Nazis in his genocidal anti-Semitism and in his interest in eastern religion. His near-contemporary, Alfred Rosenberg, was also an ethnic German from Estonia who fled to Germany after the Bolshevik Revolution, joined the Nazi Party, rose to become the Nazis chief idealogue, and was executed by the Allies at Nuremberg. The Berzin Archives has information about Nazi interest in Tibet.
The Buddhists of Mongolia practiced a form of Tibetan Buddhism that was by no means pacifist. What seems to have been the case is that Buddhism was grafted on the Mongols prex-existing warlike beliefs and did not replace or eliminate them(like the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism in Japan). These included hideous gods of war who needed to be propitiated. Ungern-Sternbergs dictatorship received support not only from local Buddhist leaders like the Bogd Khan, but from the 13th Dalai Lama, who sent Tibetan troops to fight alongside him.
Ironically, Ungern-Sternberg may be responsible for Mongolias continued independence. If not for him, the Soviets would not have invaded and made it a satellite nation until 1990, when it overthrew communism and began to chart its own course. Inner Mongolia, the part within China, has been heavily settled by ethnic Chinese, so that Mongols are now a minority. This is likely to be the fate of Tibet, which unlike Outer Mongolia has been absorbed into China.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Baron Ungern-Sternberg was a ethnic German who grew up in Estonia, then part of Tsarist Russia. He became a cavalryman in a Cossack unit in the far east of Siberia, leading troops that included a significant number of Buriat Mongols who were subject of the Tsar. A staunch monarchist, after the Bosheviks took power in 1917, Ungern-Sternberg became a leader of the White (anti-Red Army) forces in Siberia. By 1920, the White cause had collapsed, and Ungern-Sternberg led his troops across the border to Outer Mongolia, which had historically been a dependency of China, and only declared its independence in 1911.
Taking over Mongolia with a force of several thousand men, Ungern-Sternberg ordered executions willy-nilly, including the extermination of all Jews in Mongolia (amounting to a couple hundred emigres from Russia). His medical staff killed hard-to-treat patients, and he killed children along with their parents, to prevent them from growing up with revenge on their mind. In 1921, the Bolsheviks, concerned about Mongolia serving as a base for counterrevolution, sent a force to meet Ungern-Sternberg, defeated him in battle and executed him.
While Ungern-Sternberg fought for Russia, he anticipated the Nazis in his genocidal anti-Semitism and in his interest in eastern religion. His near-contemporary, Alfred Rosenberg, was also an ethnic German from Estonia who fled to Germany after the Bolshevik Revolution, joined the Nazi Party, rose to become the Nazis chief idealogue, and was executed by the Allies at Nuremberg. The Berzin Archives has information about Nazi interest in Tibet.
The Buddhists of Mongolia practiced a form of Tibetan Buddhism that was by no means pacifist. What seems to have been the case is that Buddhism was grafted on the Mongols prex-existing warlike beliefs and did not replace or eliminate them(like the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism in Japan). These included hideous gods of war who needed to be propitiated. Ungern-Sternbergs dictatorship received support not only from local Buddhist leaders like the Bogd Khan, but from the 13th Dalai Lama, who sent Tibetan troops to fight alongside him.
Ironically, Ungern-Sternberg may be responsible for Mongolias continued independence. If not for him, the Soviets would not have invaded and made it a satellite nation until 1990, when it overthrew communism and began to chart its own course. Inner Mongolia, the part within China, has been heavily settled by ethnic Chinese, so that Mongols are now a minority. This is likely to be the fate of Tibet, which unlike Outer Mongolia has been absorbed into China.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:Savage Garden
Though we agree on the politics, Ezras a bit off base on what this survey tells us about patients - reason being, this is not a survey of , but a nationally representative sample of 1,238 randomly selected respondents. And that means we can expect only about forty percent of the people surveyed to have a chronic disease, a fact not reflected in the survey itself. The only indicator of potential illness is the chart I grabbed above, counting number of doctors or other health professionals seen in the last two years.
Why is this a problem? The picture that emerges from this survey doesnt reflect a typical . It reflects an average American, who may or may not be a patient in any meaningful sense. And by meaningful, I mean the sort of person who has an substantial need for ongoing health care. It would be a mistake to draw conclusions as to what patients will do based on what Americans would do; most Americans arent patients. And indeed, one of the few charts (see below) that breaks down answers by doctor count shows that intensive users of the system encounter - surprise - more problems.
Why is this important? People with chronic illness - proper - account for about 75-80% of health care spending. Understanding how patients think about the health care system is a crucial step in health care reform. Yes, in some cases health care decisions get made by worried parents trying to save a sick daughter, but this scenario also presents something of a ticking time bomb fallacy. The fact is, a lot of important, expensive health care decisions concern non-fatal, non-urgent chronic illnesses over extended periods of time, in contexts that extend well beyond the hospital walls.
In terms of cost, Ezra is generally right: the people most equipped to make effective decisions about costs are doctors. But hes still a bit too dismissive of patients decision-making on health care; its not that patients these decisions, but that were not permitted to make the decisions. Patients should be more skeptical of their doctors, and they should be able to check their doctors work, but many doctors resist that sort of active participation from their patients. An adequate version of health care reform might focus solely on the cost problem, but a better - and more effective - version would help equip patients to play a more active role in their care.
This isnt an endorsement of the sorts of conservative proposals Ezra is arguing against, which in any case arent about patient empowerment so much as forcing sick people to bear the burden of their contingent circumstances. But its also not an endorsement of Ezras view, which seems to be that doctors should be given all the tools and authority to make the important decisions. Instead, I would like to see health care reform that helps patients take better care of themselves, in part by increasing their access to care, but also by increasing their access to evidence and information that might encourage better decision-making. And in the meantime, it might help to see some surveys of what patients - people who need health care - actually think about the system we have.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Why is this a problem? The picture that emerges from this survey doesnt reflect a typical . It reflects an average American, who may or may not be a patient in any meaningful sense. And by meaningful, I mean the sort of person who has an substantial need for ongoing health care. It would be a mistake to draw conclusions as to what patients will do based on what Americans would do; most Americans arent patients. And indeed, one of the few charts (see below) that breaks down answers by doctor count shows that intensive users of the system encounter - surprise - more problems.
Why is this important? People with chronic illness - proper - account for about 75-80% of health care spending. Understanding how patients think about the health care system is a crucial step in health care reform. Yes, in some cases health care decisions get made by worried parents trying to save a sick daughter, but this scenario also presents something of a ticking time bomb fallacy. The fact is, a lot of important, expensive health care decisions concern non-fatal, non-urgent chronic illnesses over extended periods of time, in contexts that extend well beyond the hospital walls.
In terms of cost, Ezra is generally right: the people most equipped to make effective decisions about costs are doctors. But hes still a bit too dismissive of patients decision-making on health care; its not that patients these decisions, but that were not permitted to make the decisions. Patients should be more skeptical of their doctors, and they should be able to check their doctors work, but many doctors resist that sort of active participation from their patients. An adequate version of health care reform might focus solely on the cost problem, but a better - and more effective - version would help equip patients to play a more active role in their care.
This isnt an endorsement of the sorts of conservative proposals Ezra is arguing against, which in any case arent about patient empowerment so much as forcing sick people to bear the burden of their contingent circumstances. But its also not an endorsement of Ezras view, which seems to be that doctors should be given all the tools and authority to make the important decisions. Instead, I would like to see health care reform that helps patients take better care of themselves, in part by increasing their access to care, but also by increasing their access to evidence and information that might encourage better decision-making. And in the meantime, it might help to see some surveys of what patients - people who need health care - actually think about the system we have.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:Very good
- Music:Crazy Town
The relentless march of civilization is ever increasing in speed and intensity, reaching even the most remote and hidden peoples. Acculturation inevitably spells the doom of native lore and leads to the disappearance of knowledge built up through the ages. It is, therefore, urgent that we step up the tempo of research before this knowledge will forever be entombed with the cultures that gave it birth.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:smile
- Music:Tokio Hotel
The Ancient Egyptians
In ancient Egypt, herbs were used for religious purposes, as cosmetics and for healing. Many plants and their extraction methods are depicted on the walls of tombs, indicating their central role in Egyptian life. Fragments of medical papyri from about 2000 BC give left juniper was one of the herbs used for healing and ritual in ancient egypt. instructions and recipes for preparing various herbal medicaments including unguents, poultices and beverages made from herbs such as juniper, licorice, sweet calamus and aloe vera. Herbs were also extensively used in the mummification process.
The Ancient Greeks
In classical times little, if any, distinction was made between Hippocratic medicine and natural philosophy. Physicians shared the view of the world that held that humans Eire a microcosm of the universal macrocosm of nature. All things in nature derive from the same source and partake of its vital energy, or pneuma. The fundamental elements in nature, Earth, Water, Fire and Air-Ether form in the human body the biological humours of phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. Health comes from a balanced mingling, or krasis of the humours, which leads to a state of well-being or harmonia. The Hippocratic physicians advocated the use of special diets, fasting, herbs and habits to harmonize the particular balance of humours within each individual.
Two ancient Greeks who also played an important part in the history of herbal medicine were Dioscorides and Galen. Dioscorides, a surgeon in the Roman army, wrote a five-volume De Materia Medica in the first century AD, which was subsequently used for centuries by herbalists.
In the second century AD, Galen, a Greek physician in the employment of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, praised Dioscorides' work and based much of his use of herbs on it. Galen was a physician of considerable experience and wrote numerous treatises on the arts of medicine and on his investigations into anatomy and physiology. Galen also wrote numerous commentaries on the works of his predecessors and contemporaries. Because of his prestige and the survival of many of his writings, Galen was to be the dominant influence on all subsequent medical thought until the Renaissance, some 1,600 years later.
Islamic Home Remedies
Perhaps the most important Arab physician and teacher was Abu Ah al-Husayn Abd Allah Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna. Bom in AD 980, Avicenna, who was a court physician in Persia, was a man of learning in many fields besides medicine - including mathematics, astrology and philosophy. He was also an early chemist and perfected several processes such as filtration, sublimation, calcination and distillation - producing the first essential oil of rose. Avicenna wrote many books, the most famous being his Canon of Medicine, which greatly influenced the development of medicine and chemistry, not only in the Middle East, but also in Europe and India.
Arabian civilization established the practice of founding public hospitals and dispensaries for the sick. Today Islamic medicine, which is known as Unani-Tibb, continues to be practiced throughout the former Islamic empire, from North Africa to the Indian subcontinent and
Indonesia Home Remedies
Herbal medicine continued to be studied and used in Europe, by monks and nuns and by gifted individuals. The monasteries and convents maintained special gardens for cultivating medicinal plants. Among lay people too, there was usually someone, often a wise woman, who had a knowledge of healing herbs.
In the later Middle Ages and with the Renaissance in the 15th century, an explosion of learning began, stimulated by increased contacts with the Islamic empire through the Crusades. Ancient Latin and Greek texts were rediscovered during this period and the first medical school was started in Salerno, Italy. The superior medical knowledge of the Arabs was eagerly sought, their texts re-translated into Latin and their teachers invited to teach in newly established medical schools.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
In ancient Egypt, herbs were used for religious purposes, as cosmetics and for healing. Many plants and their extraction methods are depicted on the walls of tombs, indicating their central role in Egyptian life. Fragments of medical papyri from about 2000 BC give left juniper was one of the herbs used for healing and ritual in ancient egypt. instructions and recipes for preparing various herbal medicaments including unguents, poultices and beverages made from herbs such as juniper, licorice, sweet calamus and aloe vera. Herbs were also extensively used in the mummification process.
The Ancient Greeks
In classical times little, if any, distinction was made between Hippocratic medicine and natural philosophy. Physicians shared the view of the world that held that humans Eire a microcosm of the universal macrocosm of nature. All things in nature derive from the same source and partake of its vital energy, or pneuma. The fundamental elements in nature, Earth, Water, Fire and Air-Ether form in the human body the biological humours of phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. Health comes from a balanced mingling, or krasis of the humours, which leads to a state of well-being or harmonia. The Hippocratic physicians advocated the use of special diets, fasting, herbs and habits to harmonize the particular balance of humours within each individual.
Two ancient Greeks who also played an important part in the history of herbal medicine were Dioscorides and Galen. Dioscorides, a surgeon in the Roman army, wrote a five-volume De Materia Medica in the first century AD, which was subsequently used for centuries by herbalists.
In the second century AD, Galen, a Greek physician in the employment of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, praised Dioscorides' work and based much of his use of herbs on it. Galen was a physician of considerable experience and wrote numerous treatises on the arts of medicine and on his investigations into anatomy and physiology. Galen also wrote numerous commentaries on the works of his predecessors and contemporaries. Because of his prestige and the survival of many of his writings, Galen was to be the dominant influence on all subsequent medical thought until the Renaissance, some 1,600 years later.
Islamic Home Remedies
Perhaps the most important Arab physician and teacher was Abu Ah al-Husayn Abd Allah Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna. Bom in AD 980, Avicenna, who was a court physician in Persia, was a man of learning in many fields besides medicine - including mathematics, astrology and philosophy. He was also an early chemist and perfected several processes such as filtration, sublimation, calcination and distillation - producing the first essential oil of rose. Avicenna wrote many books, the most famous being his Canon of Medicine, which greatly influenced the development of medicine and chemistry, not only in the Middle East, but also in Europe and India.
Arabian civilization established the practice of founding public hospitals and dispensaries for the sick. Today Islamic medicine, which is known as Unani-Tibb, continues to be practiced throughout the former Islamic empire, from North Africa to the Indian subcontinent and
Indonesia Home Remedies
Herbal medicine continued to be studied and used in Europe, by monks and nuns and by gifted individuals. The monasteries and convents maintained special gardens for cultivating medicinal plants. Among lay people too, there was usually someone, often a wise woman, who had a knowledge of healing herbs.
In the later Middle Ages and with the Renaissance in the 15th century, an explosion of learning began, stimulated by increased contacts with the Islamic empire through the Crusades. Ancient Latin and Greek texts were rediscovered during this period and the first medical school was started in Salerno, Italy. The superior medical knowledge of the Arabs was eagerly sought, their texts re-translated into Latin and their teachers invited to teach in newly established medical schools.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:smile
- Music:50 Cent
Three years after the publication of Walt Whitmans Leaves of Grass, a mysterious miniature book appeared in the bookstalls of New York City. Just large enough to fit in the palm, and easily hidden in a gentleman's pocket or a ladys knitting bag, The Illustrated Silent Friend, by William Earl, M.D., of 12 White Street, offered an extraordinary variety of arcane information. As the title page of the paperback copy I own informs the public, the Silent Friend is A Complete Guide To Health, Marriage and Happiness, Embracing Subjects Never Before Scientifically Discussed - With Magnificent Illustrations In Anatomy Of The Lungs, Fistal Delivery, Monstrosities, Uterine Tumors, Generative Organs, Deformities, Diseases, C. Also, Valuable and Practical Receipts In Medicine, The Arts, Etc. And in 382 pages printed in minute type, Dr. Earl delivers a breathtaking range of quaint and curious lure. Sandwiched in between advertisements for male safes [condoms] made of white Indian rubber, and herbal cures for gonorrhea, were recipes for making wood more durable than iron and practical advice for would-part-time mesmerists.
Of course, many books of the time dealt in similar subjects, but not quite with Dr. Earls panache: "To transfer a pale and sallow face to one of beauty," he tells us, "take one dozen common iron nails, about 2 inches long, one tablespoon of extract of aloes hepatica, put these into a large bottle and poor upon them two quarts of eider, cork them up tightly and shake them every day for one month, then strain off the clear liquid, and of this take one table spoon upon rising and going to bed, when all paleness will leave the face, and it will ultimately attain beauty."
Whether this beauty is attained in life, or ultimately achieved upon the death by poisoning of the patient, Dr. Earl fails to say. Among all the snake-oil clap-trap contained in this entertaining bit of Americana is one entry that, in its strangeness, and its use of specific names and places, stands out from the rest. On pages 253-256, we find this startling entry:
"Do the Inhabitants of other Planets ever Visit this Earth? I propose in this connection to make a few remarks on the following: Mr. Henry Wallace and other persons of Jay, Ohio, have recently detailed to me the annexed. There are thousands of such cases on record. These gentlemen state, that sometimes since on a clear and bright day, a shadow was thrown over the place where they were; this necessarily attracted their attention to the Heavens, where they one and all beheld a large and curiously constructed vessel, not over one hundred yards from the earth. They could plainly discern a large number of people on board of her, whose average height appeared to be about twelve feet. The vessel was evidently worked by wheels and other mechanical appendages, all of which worked with a precision and a degree of beauty never yet attained by any mechanical skill upon this planet.
Now, I know that thousands will, at this recital, cry humbug, nonsense, lunacy, c., but I know that there are other thousands who will read and reflect. It is for these latter thousands that I write. Once upon a time there appeared a celebrated reformer, who arose among the people and taught a new doctrine, that from its reasonableness and its simplicity, electrified the hearts of the thinking people. But the party who didnt think, and who hated reason, and new ideas, cried out, away with him to the crucifixion. And they did crucify his body, but they have not yet succeeded in crucifying the reason, and new facts and ideas that be taught.
In view, then, of the above, I venture to advance the following remarks: I believe that the time will come when all of the inhabitants of all worlds or planets in the solar system, will regularly visit each other when in the fullness or fruition of things, an interchange of ideas and commodities, visiting and greetings between the respective inhabitants of all worlds or planets, will be common and universal. I believe that the grand aspirations of an advanced humanity on this earth, is not without a good cause and a good reason.
I believe that when the respective atmospheres seen surrounding the different planets in the solar system, indeed, of every part of the universe, shall have passed into the highest condition of excellence and purity of which it is capable, that it will then give life to a more exalted and finished condition of genera and species, or inhabitants. That all of the planets are now inhabited by a kind of beings suited to their respective planetary and electrical conditions, is, I think, certain. And that the inhabitants of thousands of these worlds, that roll with eternal beauty throughout the boundless regions of the immensity of space, have attained that advanced condition in their planetary being, I have no doubt, whatever.
And that this ship which Mr. Wallace and others saw, was a vessel from Venus, Mercury, or the planet Mars, on a visit of pleasure or exploration, or some other cause; I myself, with the evidence at hand, that I can bring to bear on it, have no more doubt of, than I have of the fact of my own existence. This, mind, was no phantom that disappeared in a twinkling, as all phantoms do disappear, but this aerial ship was guided, propelled and steered through the atmosphere with the most scientific system and regularity, at about six miles an hour, though, doubtless, from the appearance of her machinery, she was capable of going thousands of miles an hour, and who knows but ten thousand miles an hour. What can be more wonderful as an illustration, than the Electric Telegraph to connect the old world with the new. And why then, may not the scientific geniuses of other planets have done as much as ours have?
Besides this, if I had room, I could draw an argument from the electrical condition of the media existing between the planets, to show that a body once in motion at a given distance from a planetary body in space, will move with nearly the speed of electricity till it meets again the resisting media, or atmosphere of another planet or body in space. That all of this knowledge, and a million times more, may be known to some of the exalted beings of other planets in space, I have no doubt. But as I was saying, this aerial ship moved directly off from the earth, and remained in sight, till by distance she was lost to the view. The foregoing is my firm and decided conclusion and belief in this matter."
Dr. Earl lived on to publish a new, enlarged Illustrated Silent Friend, as well as The Parent's Companion; On the diseases of infants and children; Woman; her duties, relations and position; A medical and social work; Seven Causes of Debility; and Moderate the pace that Kills; High pressure business life; all in 1878 and catalogued by the Library of Congress.
Of course, the crux of the matter is this: was there really a Henry Wallace of Jay, Ohio? The most logical place to search would be the old census records for Ohio, and this is exactly what I determined to do. Because of logistical difficulties (I live half a world away), I contacted the Ohio Historical Society via the internet, paid the requisite fee, included a self-addressed envelope with my written request, and received, by mail the following letter dated April 21, 1999:
Dear Mr. Glass:
Regarding your request for information from the 1850 Census, please see the attached materials. You will note that there are several "Henry Wallaces" listed in the Index to the Federal Census of Ohio; unfortunately, none of them are listed in a county that includes a town by the name of Jay. However, there is a town named Jay in Erie County, which is just east of Lorain County. So we copied the Lorain County listing for a Henry Wallace in the hopes that this was the man you are interested in.
The appended pages included copies from the 1860 census of Ohio. I scanned through the spidery and antique handwriting, and there he was! Henry Wallace of Eerie County, and presumably of Jay, was number 549 in the records. His age in 1860 was 30 years old. He was married to Cloe, 28, and had a daughter named Eva B who was 12 years and 8 months old at the time. Henry and his wife were Irish; his occupation was listed as "Sailor." What is more, the entry just previous to Henrys is for one David Wallace, 27 years old, and also from Ireland. He too had a wife and a young daughter to support. Davids occupation is listed as "Ship Carpenter."
Presumably, David and Henry were brothers and next-door neighbors in Jay. Further perusal of the page indicates that their neighborhood was composed primarily of sailors, millers, farmers and domesticsi.e., Henry and his family appear to have been members of the working poor of the time. Their position in society was no doubt a difficult one, as was that of many Irish immigrants. Add to this the probability that Henry Wallace was corresponding with Dr. Earl because of a sexually-transmitted disease picked up during his sea-faring life, and an interesting picture emerges: either the sailor was a consummate blarney artist practicing his gift upon a big city snake-oil salesman, or Wallace was a simple person telling the truth to one whom he--mistakenly--believed to be a man of science.
The "other persons," Dr. Earl mentions above, may well have been from this neighborhood of poor people in the small town of Jay, Ohio. No doubt Henry Wallace never suspected that Dr. Earl would mention him by name in his odd little book and thereby allow us to catch a glimpse of this poor man and those who might have witnessed one of the most extraordinary sights any human could behold. What thoughts could have run through their minds in the presence of an airship hovering so near to the earth that it clearly exhibited its crew of giants and the intricate machinery that made it fly? And then to watch it move grandly through the air until lost from sight.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Of course, many books of the time dealt in similar subjects, but not quite with Dr. Earls panache: "To transfer a pale and sallow face to one of beauty," he tells us, "take one dozen common iron nails, about 2 inches long, one tablespoon of extract of aloes hepatica, put these into a large bottle and poor upon them two quarts of eider, cork them up tightly and shake them every day for one month, then strain off the clear liquid, and of this take one table spoon upon rising and going to bed, when all paleness will leave the face, and it will ultimately attain beauty."
Whether this beauty is attained in life, or ultimately achieved upon the death by poisoning of the patient, Dr. Earl fails to say. Among all the snake-oil clap-trap contained in this entertaining bit of Americana is one entry that, in its strangeness, and its use of specific names and places, stands out from the rest. On pages 253-256, we find this startling entry:
"Do the Inhabitants of other Planets ever Visit this Earth? I propose in this connection to make a few remarks on the following: Mr. Henry Wallace and other persons of Jay, Ohio, have recently detailed to me the annexed. There are thousands of such cases on record. These gentlemen state, that sometimes since on a clear and bright day, a shadow was thrown over the place where they were; this necessarily attracted their attention to the Heavens, where they one and all beheld a large and curiously constructed vessel, not over one hundred yards from the earth. They could plainly discern a large number of people on board of her, whose average height appeared to be about twelve feet. The vessel was evidently worked by wheels and other mechanical appendages, all of which worked with a precision and a degree of beauty never yet attained by any mechanical skill upon this planet.
Now, I know that thousands will, at this recital, cry humbug, nonsense, lunacy, c., but I know that there are other thousands who will read and reflect. It is for these latter thousands that I write. Once upon a time there appeared a celebrated reformer, who arose among the people and taught a new doctrine, that from its reasonableness and its simplicity, electrified the hearts of the thinking people. But the party who didnt think, and who hated reason, and new ideas, cried out, away with him to the crucifixion. And they did crucify his body, but they have not yet succeeded in crucifying the reason, and new facts and ideas that be taught.
In view, then, of the above, I venture to advance the following remarks: I believe that the time will come when all of the inhabitants of all worlds or planets in the solar system, will regularly visit each other when in the fullness or fruition of things, an interchange of ideas and commodities, visiting and greetings between the respective inhabitants of all worlds or planets, will be common and universal. I believe that the grand aspirations of an advanced humanity on this earth, is not without a good cause and a good reason.
I believe that when the respective atmospheres seen surrounding the different planets in the solar system, indeed, of every part of the universe, shall have passed into the highest condition of excellence and purity of which it is capable, that it will then give life to a more exalted and finished condition of genera and species, or inhabitants. That all of the planets are now inhabited by a kind of beings suited to their respective planetary and electrical conditions, is, I think, certain. And that the inhabitants of thousands of these worlds, that roll with eternal beauty throughout the boundless regions of the immensity of space, have attained that advanced condition in their planetary being, I have no doubt, whatever.
And that this ship which Mr. Wallace and others saw, was a vessel from Venus, Mercury, or the planet Mars, on a visit of pleasure or exploration, or some other cause; I myself, with the evidence at hand, that I can bring to bear on it, have no more doubt of, than I have of the fact of my own existence. This, mind, was no phantom that disappeared in a twinkling, as all phantoms do disappear, but this aerial ship was guided, propelled and steered through the atmosphere with the most scientific system and regularity, at about six miles an hour, though, doubtless, from the appearance of her machinery, she was capable of going thousands of miles an hour, and who knows but ten thousand miles an hour. What can be more wonderful as an illustration, than the Electric Telegraph to connect the old world with the new. And why then, may not the scientific geniuses of other planets have done as much as ours have?
Besides this, if I had room, I could draw an argument from the electrical condition of the media existing between the planets, to show that a body once in motion at a given distance from a planetary body in space, will move with nearly the speed of electricity till it meets again the resisting media, or atmosphere of another planet or body in space. That all of this knowledge, and a million times more, may be known to some of the exalted beings of other planets in space, I have no doubt. But as I was saying, this aerial ship moved directly off from the earth, and remained in sight, till by distance she was lost to the view. The foregoing is my firm and decided conclusion and belief in this matter."
Dr. Earl lived on to publish a new, enlarged Illustrated Silent Friend, as well as The Parent's Companion; On the diseases of infants and children; Woman; her duties, relations and position; A medical and social work; Seven Causes of Debility; and Moderate the pace that Kills; High pressure business life; all in 1878 and catalogued by the Library of Congress.
Of course, the crux of the matter is this: was there really a Henry Wallace of Jay, Ohio? The most logical place to search would be the old census records for Ohio, and this is exactly what I determined to do. Because of logistical difficulties (I live half a world away), I contacted the Ohio Historical Society via the internet, paid the requisite fee, included a self-addressed envelope with my written request, and received, by mail the following letter dated April 21, 1999:
Dear Mr. Glass:
Regarding your request for information from the 1850 Census, please see the attached materials. You will note that there are several "Henry Wallaces" listed in the Index to the Federal Census of Ohio; unfortunately, none of them are listed in a county that includes a town by the name of Jay. However, there is a town named Jay in Erie County, which is just east of Lorain County. So we copied the Lorain County listing for a Henry Wallace in the hopes that this was the man you are interested in.
The appended pages included copies from the 1860 census of Ohio. I scanned through the spidery and antique handwriting, and there he was! Henry Wallace of Eerie County, and presumably of Jay, was number 549 in the records. His age in 1860 was 30 years old. He was married to Cloe, 28, and had a daughter named Eva B who was 12 years and 8 months old at the time. Henry and his wife were Irish; his occupation was listed as "Sailor." What is more, the entry just previous to Henrys is for one David Wallace, 27 years old, and also from Ireland. He too had a wife and a young daughter to support. Davids occupation is listed as "Ship Carpenter."
Presumably, David and Henry were brothers and next-door neighbors in Jay. Further perusal of the page indicates that their neighborhood was composed primarily of sailors, millers, farmers and domesticsi.e., Henry and his family appear to have been members of the working poor of the time. Their position in society was no doubt a difficult one, as was that of many Irish immigrants. Add to this the probability that Henry Wallace was corresponding with Dr. Earl because of a sexually-transmitted disease picked up during his sea-faring life, and an interesting picture emerges: either the sailor was a consummate blarney artist practicing his gift upon a big city snake-oil salesman, or Wallace was a simple person telling the truth to one whom he--mistakenly--believed to be a man of science.
The "other persons," Dr. Earl mentions above, may well have been from this neighborhood of poor people in the small town of Jay, Ohio. No doubt Henry Wallace never suspected that Dr. Earl would mention him by name in his odd little book and thereby allow us to catch a glimpse of this poor man and those who might have witnessed one of the most extraordinary sights any human could behold. What thoughts could have run through their minds in the presence of an airship hovering so near to the earth that it clearly exhibited its crew of giants and the intricate machinery that made it fly? And then to watch it move grandly through the air until lost from sight.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:lol
- Music:PaPa RoAch
The relentless march of civilization is ever increasing in speed and intensity, reaching even the most remote and hidden peoples. Acculturation inevitably spells the doom of native lore and leads to the disappearance of knowledge built up through the ages. It is, therefore, urgent that we step up the tempo of research before this knowledge will forever be entombed with the cultures that gave it birth.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:lol
- Music:Enrique Iglesias
Of course no list of the top five attractions in Egypt would be complete without the great Pyramids of Giza. Several generations of Egyptian royalty constructed their great burial shrines on the plains outside of Cairo, and in addition to the massive stone pyramids, the area houses hundreds of “mastaba” structures that served as the final resting places for the relations and important court servants of the ancient Pharaohs. The location is also the home of the famous Sphinx.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:More emotions
- Music:Nickelback
The relentless march of civilization is ever increasing in speed and intensity, reaching even the most remote and hidden peoples. Acculturation inevitably spells the doom of native lore and leads to the disappearance of knowledge built up through the ages. It is, therefore, urgent that we step up the tempo of research before this knowledge will forever be entombed with the cultures that gave it birth.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:DJ Smash
Inspection中醫 四診望 Inspection is a method to examine the patient by observation of the expression, appearance, color, and abnormal changes of secretion and excretion, etc. 1. Observation of the Mind This is to observe the patient's spirit, clearness of consciousness, coordination and vigor of movements, and keenness of response in order to judge the excess or deficiency of yin, yang, qi, and blood in the zang-fu organs and make a prognosis of the disease condition. Strength of Spirit: The patient is in good spirits, the body resistance and functions of the zang-fu organs are normal, therefore the patient has a good prognosis. Generally speaking, the patient is in good spirits, behaves normally with a sparkle in the eye, and has a keen response. Loss of Spirit: The patient is spiritless, indifferent in expression, has dull eyes and a sluggish response, or may even be unconscious or have a mental disturbance. This shows damage to the body resistance, a severe disease condition, and a poor prognosis. 2. Observation of the Complexion Observe the color and luster of the facial region. Generally, a lustrous complexion with normal color indicates ample qi and blood, and a mild disease with a good prognosis. If the complexion is deep in color and withered, this indicates a serious disease condition with damage to the qi and essence, and a difficult treatment with poor prognosis. White Color: A white color is the sign of a qi and blood deficiency. A pale complexion indicates a yin excess with yang deficiency. A qi deficiency manifests a lusterless and pale complexion and is accompanied by swelling. A pale emaciated face indicates a blood deficiency. A sudden pale complexion with cold sweat is the sign of sudden prostration of yang qi due to febrile diseases caused by exogenous pathogenic wind-cold. Yellowish Color: a yellowish color is the sign of spleen deficiency and damp accumulation. A complexion that is yellowish, withered and lusterless indicates a qi deficiency of the spleen and stomach. A yellowish, flabby complexion is the sign of damp accumulation due to spleen dysfunction of transportation and transformation. The yellow color of the face, eyes, and skin indicates jaundice. In traditional Chinese medicine a bright orange yellow is diagnosed as yang jaundice caused by pathogenic damp-heat; dark yellow in yin jaundice due to pathogenic cold-damp. Red Color: Redness indicates excessively full blood vessels due to excessive heat. A red complexion is mostly due to the fever of a common cold, or may be a heat syndrome due to excessive yang in the zang-fu organs. Malar flush with bright red color indicates xu heat syndromes due to yin deficiency and yang preponderance. Bluish Color: Bluish color indicates syndromes of cold, pain, and blood stasis or convulsion, and is the manifestation of qi and blood obstruction in the channels. Pathogenic cold causes stagnation of qi and blood leading to pain. Children's high fever also shows a bluish complexion, the symptoms of acute convulsion. Black Color: Black color indicates kidney deficiency, humor accumulation, and blood stasis. This is the manifestation of excessive cold and water, or stagnation of qi and blood. If the complexion is as black as bronze, it is mostly due to an extreme weakness of kidney yang and cold accumulation manifesting as xu-cold syndromes. A dark dray color around the eyes denotes phlegm-humor syndrome due to kidney deficiency. This leads to a dysfunction of the water metabolism or leukorrhea, due to the downward flowing of kidney essence. A dark gray malar can be seen in patients with frequent urination due to kidney deficiency. A dark gray complexion indicates prolonged stagnation of blood such as a consumptive disease with blood deficiency accompanied by menoplania or amenia. 3. Observation of the Tongue [舌苔] The tongue is the mirror of the body. Harmony and disharmony are reflected in the tongues color, moisture, size, coating and the location of abnormalities. Healthy Organ Systems and a lack of External Pernicious Influences produce a healthy tongue, which is pinkish red, neither dry nor too wet, fits perfectly within the mouth, moves freely and has a thin white coating. Imbalances in the Organ Systems and/or invasion by Pernicious Influences produce an unhealthy tongue. External Pernicious Influences produce changes in the tongue coating. Interior problems, such as Organ System or Essential Substance disharmonies, produce changes in the tongue body. When examining the tongue, the Chinese medicine doctor looks at the color of the tongue body, its size and shape, the color and thickness of its coating or fur, locations of abnormalities, and moistness or dryness of the tongue body and fur. These signs reveal not only overall states of health but correlate to specific organ functions and disharmonies, especially in the digestive system. To evaluate the tongue accurately, always do the examination in natural light. Tongue Body: The tongue body is a fleshy mass and has color, texture, and shape independent from the apparent qualities of the tongue coating. A pale tongue body indicates deficient Xue, Qi, or Yang or Excess Cold. An overly red tongue body indicates Excess Heat. A purple tongue indicates that Qi and/or Xue are not moving harmoniously and are stagnant. Pale purple means the Stagnation is related to Cold. Reddish purple is related to Stagnation of Heat. When the tongue is black or gray, it indicates extreme Stagnation; if black and dry, that indicates extreme Heat Stagnation; if black and wet, that indicates extreme Cold Stagnation. Bright red indicates Deficient Yin or Excess Heat. Dark red indicates Excess Heat. Cracks in a red tongue indicate Deficient Yin or Heat Injuring the Fluids. If the tongue is pale and cracked, there is Deficient Qi or Xue. Thorny eruptions of the buds on the tongue alert the doctor to Heat or Stagnant Xue. Tongue FurThe tongues coating is best described as moss or fur. It arises when the Spleen causes tiny amounts of impure substances to drift upward to the tongue. When the Spleen and stomach are in balance, there is a uniform density of fur, with a slightly thicker area in the center of the tongue. Thick fur indicates excess. Thin fur is related to deficiency during illness, but is normal if you are well. Fur that is wet indicates Excess Jin-Ye (fluids) and/or a Deficient Yang. Dry fur is a sign of Excess Yang or Deficient Jin-Ye. A greasy fur is a sign of mucus or dampness in the body. If the fur looks peeled off or missing, it reveals Deficient Spleen or Yin or fluids. White, moist fur indicates Cold. Yellow fur means Heat. However, white fur, resembling cottage cheese, points to heat in the Stomach. Gray/black fur with a red body is associated with extreme Heat; gray/black fur with a pale body is a sign of extreme Cold. Size and Shape: The healthy tongue rests comfortably in the mouth. It is neither too small nor too large. If a tongue is enlarged and flabby, it indicates Deficient Qi. If, in addition to being enlarged and flabby, the tongue has scalloped (or tooth marked) edges, then it indicates dampness due to Deficient Qi or stagnation of fluids. If the tongue is enlarged and hard, it is a sign of Excess. If it swells so that it fills the mouth and is deep red, that means Excess Heat in Heart and Spleen are a problem. A small, thin tongue can indicate Deficient Yin or Xue. Movement A trembling, pale tongue indicates Deficient Qi. A flaccid tongue that is pale often reveals extreme Qi or Xue Deficiency. A flaccid tongue that is deep red reveals severe Yin Deficiency. A trembling, red tongue indicates interior Wind. If the tongue sits off-center in the mouth, early or full-blown Wind stroke may be present. A rigid tongue accompanies an Exterior Pernicious Influence and fever. This may indicate the invasion of the Pericardium by Heat and Mucus Obstructing the Heart Qi. Location of Abnormalities: The location of disturbances on the tongue is vivid indications of where disharmonies in the mind/body/spirit are located. Certain organs are associated with the Upper, Middle and Lower Triple Burner, which are in turn associated with the front, middle and back sections of the tongue. For example, if there are red spots on the front third of the tongue, which is associated with the Upper Burner, this indicates that there is Heat in the Lungs. If the tip of the tongue is red, that indicates Heat in the Heart. Menstrual cramps, when associated with Stagnant Xue, are often accompanied by purple spots on the edges of the tongue in the Liver/Gallbladder area. The Role of Tongue Diagnosis: Not all tongue irregularities are indications of disharmony, however. Food and drugs may change the coating or color of the body of the tongue. For example, coffee yellows the coating and Pepto-Bismol turns the tongue black. Furthermore, some people have minor, unchanging cracks on their tongue, which are considered normal. Others are born with what is called a geographic tongue, which is covered with severe cracks and covered with hills and valleys. This is considered normal by some practitioners, but a sign of congenital disharmony by others. The way a tongue appears is not an absolute indicator of the location of the disharmony, but when taken as part of an overall pattern that includes a complete evaluation, it offers strong clues to the location of disharmony Tongue Proper. Tongue inspection is objectively reliable but beware of food dye! Pale Tongue: Indicates xu and cold syndromes or symptoms due to yang qi deficiency and insufficiency of qi and blood. Red Tongue: Indicates heat syndromes, mostly shi types of disease caused by interior heat, or symptoms of fire preponderance due to yin deficiency. Deep Red Tongue: Denotes the excessive heat seen in febrile disease due to invasion of exogenous pathogenic heat which as been transmitted from the exterior to the interior of the body. It also can be seen in miscellaneous diseases due to a preponderance of fire caused by yin deficiency, or seen in diseases of accumulated fire in the liver channel. Purplish Tongue: Shows the syndrome of blood stagnation. A tongue with purplish spots or petechiae also indicates blood stagnation. Tongue Appearance Flabby Tongue: A flabby tongue body with teeth marks on the margin and pale in color indicates a yang deficiency of the spleen and kidney leading to accumulation and obstruction of phlegm-dampness. A flabby tongue with a deep red color indicates excessive pathogenic heat attacking the heart and spleen. Thin and Small Tongue: This indicates consumption and deficiency of blood and yin. A thin and small tongue with a pale color denotes deficiency of both qi and blood. A thin dry tongue with a deep red color is mainly due to a preponderance of fire and great exhaustion of body fluids. Rigid Tongue: Seen in febrile diseases due to the invasion of exogenous pathogenic heat transmitted into the pericardium or due to an obstruction of pathogenic phlegm. It may also be seen in high fever leading to consumption of body fluids and preponderance of pathogenic heat. It is a prodrome of wind-stroke (cerebral stroke). Deviated Tongue: This is a prodrome of wind-stroke. Cracked Tongue: Cracks on the tongue with deep red color indicate excessive heat. A cracked pale tongue indicates insufficiency of yin and blood. However, a cracked tongueof long term duration without any other symptoms can be considered normal. Tongue Coating In the first place, the properties of tongue coating should be examined. Thinness and Thickness: Generally, if substantial pathogenic factors such as damp, phlegm or food accumulation occur and cause obstruction, they further affect the spleen and stomach leading to the ascent of turbid qi and forming of a thick tongue coating. A white thin tongue coating is formed if nonsubstantial pathogenic factors such as wind, heat, dryness, or cold attack the body; or if the pathogenic factors stay on the body surface; or if body resistance is weak during the disease development. Moistness and Dryness: The normal tongue coating is moist, which indicates that plenty of body fluid is flowing upward. If the tongue coating is dry, it is due to body fluids failing to moisten the tongue. A dry tongue coating may also be present in some febrile diseases where pathogenic heat consumes the body fluid. A slippery tongue coating may be due to pathogenic damp-humor floating over the tongue surface. Sticky and Curdled Tongue Coating: A sticky coating is due to hyperactivity of endogenous pathogenic phlegm and damp rising to the tongue, and is mostly seen in diseases caused by pathogenic damp-heat or phlegm-humor. A curdled tongue coating is the outcome of food accumulation in the stomach leading to the ascent of turbid qi to the tongue surface. It is also seen in disease caused by phlegm-damp. Peeled Tongue Coating: Mostly due to deficiency of qi and yin. If peeled tongue is accompanied by a sticky coating, it indicates a complicated disease condition to which the body resistance is weakened. No Tongue Coating: Changes in the tongue coating indicate fluctuation in the disease condition. For example, if a qi deficiency of the stomach is manifested by no tongue coating at an early stage, the tongue coating will reappear after the stomach qi is recovered. If a disease has no tongue coating, then suddenly appears, this indicates a perversive flow of stomach qi, or excessive pathogenic heat. If a disease has a tongue coating at the beginning which disappears abruptly, this indicates stomach yin fluid has decreased. If a thick coating gradually turns into a thin white coating, this indicates that pathogenic qi is being gradually weakened, and the disease condition is becoming milder. Generally, an observation of the thinness and thickness of the tongue coating will indicate the depth of pathogenic qi. The tongue's moistness or dryness shows the body fluid condition. The degree of curdling and stickiness of the tongue coating indicates the dampness of the stomach and spleen. The appearance or disappearance of tongue coating signified the cure or worsening of the disease condition. Color of Tongue Coating White Coating: Indicates exterior-cold syndromes. A white and thin coating is seen mostly in exterior syndromes, while a white and thick coating appears in interior-cold syndromes. If there is a powder-like whitish coating covering the tongue surface, it is caused by the internal accumulation of summer-humid heat and is usually seen at the onset of pestilential diseases. Yellow Coating: Indicates interior and heat syndromes. A light yellow tongue coating is seen in cases of slight fever. A deep yellow color indicates high fever. Brownish tongue coatings represent an accumulation of pathogenic heat. Grayish Coating: Denotes interior-heat syndrome or interior-cold syndrome. A grayish black and slippery coating on the tongue usually indicates symptom-complex due to cold-damp in the interior. A grayish, yellow, and sticky tongue coating usually indicates the accumulation of damp-heat. Grayish and dry tongue coatings are usually due to the consumption of body fluid by excessive heat. Black Coating: This is often seen at the serious and dangerous stage of disease, and indicates extreme heat or cold. A black, yellow, and dry coating with thorns on the tongue surface usually denotes consumption of body fluid by extreme heat. A black and slippery tongue coating shows excessive cold due to yang deficiency. Commonly seen tongue signs Pale tongue, tender, slightly larger than normal Thin, white Qi deficiency Pale, tongue normal in size or slightly shrunken Slightly dry, thin, white Blood deficiency Pale, and enlarged and tender, teeth impression on the sides Damp and moist with much fluid, white and thick Yang depletion causing internal collection of cold-dampness Pale Thin, white, peeled center Insufficient stomach yin Pale Yellow, slimy Weakness of spleen and stomach Pale red Thin, white, moist Normal or invasion by wind-cold evils. Pale red Red tip with white fur Flaming up of heart fire Red, rough Yellow Retention of heat Red, prickles Thick, yellow, dry Extreme heat in the interior Red Dry in center of the tongue Heat scorching the stomach fluids Red Yellow and slimy Dampness and heat in the qi (vital energy) aspect Red Thick, yellow and glossy Dampness and heat distending and stagnating in the spleen and stomach Red Little or no fur Yin deficiency causing virtual fire, deficiency in qi (vital energy) and yin Deep red (crimson), prickles Thick, yellow Heat evil entering the blood Deep red Dry with cracked fur Heat evil burning yin Deep red Black fur Extreme retention of heat Deep red, shrunken Dry, little or no fur Long term yin deficiency. Deep red. Yellow and slimy. Internal heat acompanied with phlegm and dampness accumulation Dark red Bruised spots or patches Blood stasis with heat Pale purple, tender, Glossy damp, moist,Internal cold flourishing. Purple, with bruised spots or patches white. Internal accumulation of blood stasis.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:More emotions
- Music:Craig David
The relentless march of civilization is ever increasing in speed and intensity, reaching even the most remote and hidden peoples. Acculturation inevitably spells the doom of native lore and leads to the disappearance of knowledge built up through the ages. It is, therefore, urgent that we step up the tempo of research before this knowledge will forever be entombed with the cultures that gave it birth.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:lol
- Music:Bob Sinclar
Since the 18th century, Greece has been heralded as the cradle of Western civilization, with Plato, Pythagoras, and Thales touted as the world's first philosophers. But as Temple University scholar Molefi Kete Asante writes in this slim, spectacular book, those men all studied in ancient Egypt and took credit for the concepts created by Imhotep, Ahmenhotep, Akhenaton, and other Egyptian intellectuals, scientists, theologians, and moralists. Asante, the major proponent of the concept of Afrocentricity, draws from a number of primary sources to reveal what he claims to be the true origins of medicine, astronomy, ethics, scientific inquiry, and civics. "The antiquity of African philosophy is unique and stands alone and is older than all other philosophies," Asante writes. "It would be much later, nearly two thousand years, before the Greeks, who were influenced by the Egyptians, would develop their philosophy." From 2700 to 1290 B.C., the Egyptians were the light of the ancient world. They produced many early medical instruments, designed the world's first step pyramid, and laid the empirical groundwork for scientific reasoning. Akhenaton, the rebel pharaoh, is even cited as "the Father of Monotheism." Asante stresses throughout the book that these developments came from a confluence of African cultures, and not from other parts of the world. "The practice of the African philosophers along the Nile was a practice of maintaining Maat [the principle of truth, order, and justice] in every aspect of life," he writes. "If we could only learn from them the value of harmony, balance, and righteousness, we would be on our way toward a revival of the spirit of human victory." --Eugene Holley Jr.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:hangry
- Music:Robbie Williams
Since the 18th century, Greece has been heralded as the cradle of Western civilization, with Plato, Pythagoras, and Thales touted as the world's first philosophers. But as Temple University scholar Molefi Kete Asante writes in this slim, spectacular book, those men all studied in ancient Egypt and took credit for the concepts created by Imhotep, Ahmenhotep, Akhenaton, and other Egyptian intellectuals, scientists, theologians, and moralists. Asante, the major proponent of the concept of Afrocentricity, draws from a number of primary sources to reveal what he claims to be the true origins of medicine, astronomy, ethics, scientific inquiry, and civics. "The antiquity of African philosophy is unique and stands alone and is older than all other philosophies," Asante writes. "It would be much later, nearly two thousand years, before the Greeks, who were influenced by the Egyptians, would develop their philosophy." From 2700 to 1290 B.C., the Egyptians were the light of the ancient world. They produced many early medical instruments, designed the world's first step pyramid, and laid the empirical groundwork for scientific reasoning. Akhenaton, the rebel pharaoh, is even cited as "the Father of Monotheism." Asante stresses throughout the book that these developments came from a confluence of African cultures, and not from other parts of the world. "The practice of the African philosophers along the Nile was a practice of maintaining Maat [the principle of truth, order, and justice] in every aspect of life," he writes. "If we could only learn from them the value of harmony, balance, and righteousness, we would be on our way toward a revival of the spirit of human victory." --Eugene Holley Jr.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:Russel Simins
The Journal "Travel + Leisure" and the CNN TV group have published a list of the USA cities that are recommended for tourist visiting. The ratings are based on the analysis conducted amongst more than 60 thousands of people who could opt among 25 biggest. nationwide mega cities. Cities were estimated according to five major categories: "People", "Culture", "Shopping", "Meals", and "City Scenery".
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:Nickelback
COINS OF THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN WORLD
AN WHERE WE ARE HEADING TO
When bartering, it is a laborious process to establish the values of various goods in relation to each other. How many visits to the cinema are worth one car? How many apples will it cost the farmer to settle his dentists bill? And what happens if the doctor does not like the apples? What is really needed is a conversion table setting out the value of goods in terms of other goods. We would always need to carry in our heads a complicated conversion table giving the value of every item in terms of every other item. This is another case where money has an advantage: since everything is exchanged for one and the same unit of measurement- money-people can better compare prices and work them out easily. When all goods are bought and sold against the same medium of exchange, namely money, it becomes easier to set prices and to compare them.
WHAT EXACTLY IS MONEY?
An odd question at first glance. Of course, we all know what money is. Money is a generally accepted medium of exchange. In addition it can be put aside for later, i.e. used for saving: money is also a store of value. But as so often in life, it is all a bit more complicated. Let us put it to the test and ask: how much money do you have right now? Do not just count the cash in your pockets or your purse. Money also includes credit balances on postal, wage and other accounts that you can use to make payments. The money on these accounts is called deposit money because payment is effected simply by transferring a deposit from one account to another.
MONEY MAKES LIFE SIMPLER
When people still provide for themselves, they did not need money. Things for everyday use they made themselves. If people made more than they needed, they swapped the surplus for other goods. In small, close-knit communities that worked quite well, and there was still no need for money. But bartering has one disadvantage: many things are perishable and soon become impossible to trade. People engaging in bartering therefore came to prefer commodities that could survive the passage of time undamaged and were much sought-after. We need money to buy what we want and to pay for what we buy. We buy physical goods ranging from bread-rolls to our dream house. We also pay for services, like the calls we make on our mobile phone or holiday bookings. Thus did money come into being.
In the course of history many commodities have served as generally accepted medium of exchange- or money: shells, salt, tea, blankets, cigarettes, precious stones, silver, and gold.
WHY NOT USE COMODITIES
Seashells, animals teeth, rare stones or even bricks of dried tea have all been used as money in different cultures. Theoretically, any material can serve as money as long as it fulfils three conditions. Firstly, it must be accepted as a means of payment by everyone doing business together. Secondly, people must have confidence in the value of the chosen material. And finally, the material must be scarce since only a scarce good has any value. That is why sand is hardly suitable as money, whereas gold and silver, for example are. Money must be scarce, but not excessively so. In an efficiently functioning economy there must always be enough money available to ensure that the goods on offer can be bought and sold in unhindered trading.
About the cover: the one and e eagle, reminiscent of the American symbol, is from the tetra drachma of ptolomy l of Egypt, one of Alexander the Greats generals. The head shown is that of Hercules, from the tetra drachma of Alexander the Great, though some have suggested it may be a portrait of Alexander himself. This booklet was researched and written by John p. Mulcahy.
The coins we use as money today have a history that goes back 2,700years. Ancient peoples used metals, especially gold and silver, to mint coins. Rulers soon learned to standardize their coins and define them in terms to fixed quantities of gold and silver, thus establishing a rate of exchange between the two metals.
The usefulness of early forms of money was often restricted by its inconvenient size, limited geographic fluctuations in the supply and demand for metals. In ancient times, the greatest stimulus to trade came when rulers such as Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Augustus established uniform coinage systems that were widely recognized and accepted. Today, most currency is paper money, and coins are passed as small change. Still, coins have many of the same features that they had in ancient times. For example, modern coins have a government-approved design and value stamped on them, like the earliest coins did. Many nations still follow the Greek and Roman custom of recognizing famous people by placing their portraits on coins. Even the eagle, which appear on the back of the U.S. quarter, can trace its use as a symbol back to the coins of the ancient Mediterranean.
Most historians think the city-states of Greece and kingdoms of Asia Minor invented the first coins in the 7th century B.C. The kingdom of Lydia, in present-day Turkey, stamped lumps of precious metals with an official seal to guarantee their weight and purity. Lydian metal, stamped with King Croesus seal, become something everyone accepted. Pubic confidence in the kings money gave trade a great boost.
These Lydia coins called STATERS, were first made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver. About the size of a finger nail, these first coins were valuable. But, the mix of gold and silver was unpredictable, making some electrum staters worth more than others. Eventually, the Lydians stabilized the stater by minting two versions, one gold and one silver. This change produced the worlds first bimetallic standard.
The front of Croesus coin is stamped with a growling lions head facing the head of a horned bull. In ancient Mediterranean cultures, the bull was a symbol of strength and heroism. The lion may have been Croesus tribute to an ancient symbol of a maternal divinity.
The Greeks Catch on
By 630 B.C., the Greeks city-state of Aegina was stamping coins. Like the Lydian stater, the Aeginetan STATER carried the image of an animal, but instead of the loin and bull, Aegina used the sea turtle. The choice of the turtle may have been based on Greek myth or on the obvious facts that turtle abounded in the sea surrounding Aegina, and still do today. The back of the silver turtle starter had a simple design, making it one of the first coins to have a design on both sides.
The Athenian Tetradrachma
In the early 6th century B.C., Athens began making silver coins in small denominations that were convenient in everyday trade. One of the of the best know coins of this period is the Athenian TETRADRACHMA meant handful and came from the Greeks practices of using small copper and iron splits, measured by the handful, as money. A tetradrachma was worth four handfuls. These Athenian coins were also among the first coins in the region to have a design on both sides. The designs usually represented important religious, political or commercial matter.
The front of the tetradrachma shows the goddess Athena, for whom the Athens was named. Greek mythology said Athena gave the city its chief source of wealth, the olive tree, and Athenians remembered that when they designed their coins. The image of the goddess of wisdom and strength appears on the front, the first prominent representation of the human from on a coin. On the back, branches of the olive tree hang above the wing of the owl, Athenas symbol.
The Athenian tetradrachma was the first coin to become money. It was used widely in the trade among the Greeks and other peoples of the region.
Athenians Commemorate victory at marathon
The Athenians were one of the first to commemorate a military victory on their coins. Following the victory over the Persians at marathon in 490 B.C., the Athenians modified their tetradrachma to include a crescent moon between the owl and olive branches. The moon reminded Athenians that Darius, king of Persia, withdrew his forces under a waning moon.
The of Corinth Gallop Into Coinage History
Although the Athenian tetradrachma was the regions first international money, it was inconvenient for everyday use because it could not be exchanged for fractional coins. The city-state of Corinth was the first to issue coins in denominations and was also one of the earliest to have designs on both sides. The winged horse Pegasus was on all Corinthian coins, which is why they were called
The New Coin Economy
By the mid-6th century B.C., the economies of the Greeks city-states had become quite sophisticated. Lydia, Aegina, Athens, Corinth and others were all making coins and improving them. Designs became more refined, their implicit guarantees made them acceptable in a widening geographical area, and the issuance of different denominations made them more useful.
Croesus had introduced bimetallism and his small silver coins were commonplace in market throughout Asia Minor. Cyrus the Great, the Persian conqueror of Lydia, minted coins based on the Lydian example and spread them through out his empire.
By the time of the Persian wars, coins had become the most common of money in the Mediterranean world. In the 5th century B.C., silver Greeks coins were the principal medium of exchange used by trading states, occasionally supplemented by Persian gold. In the 4th century B.C., Corinthian silver were as widely accepted as the Athenian tetradrachma. Once bronze coins were introduced, they quickly became the preferred money for small denominations and everyday trade.
The result was a thriving world of trade in the Mediterranean. But it was still a small world, and there were still limits to both the geographic acceptance and commercial utility of coins. Trade was also disrupted by political disorders and wars.
THE ADVENT OF A NEW ORDER
The Macedonian Empire
In the mid-4th century B.C., the Greek city-states were brought under the rule of Macedonia, whose influence eventually spread to the rest of the Mediterranean world. The tetradrachma and staters of two Macedonian kings Philip 11 and his famous son, Alexander 111 (the Great) became the top international money of its time. The coins of Philip and Alexander were so popular that they were copied and counterfeited for centuries.
Philip worked to stabilize his Macedonian coinage system at a ratio of ten-to-one for gold and silver, a standard that set the exchange rate between gold silver for many year.
Alexander the Great was a military genius and more. He also standardized the money system for Macedonia and most of the countries from the Indus River to Naples. The stimulus to trade was astonishing.
Alexander kept the gold coins of his father but issued many more of them with the backing of captured Persian metal. He redesigned them, however, to reflect his unique preferences. The front of Alexanders silver tetradrachma bears the head of the head of the young Hercules (some suggest it is a portrait of Alexander), while the back bears the image of Zeus holding a scepter and an Eagle. The scepter has long been a symbol of the ruler, while the early Greeks believed that the soul of a dead king took the form of an eagle to watch over his kingdom. Others regard the eagle as Zeus in the animal.
Images of Mortal Men Placed On Coins
After Alexander the Greats death in 323 B.C., his generals divided his empire among themselves despite the break up of Macedonian Empire, Alexanders currency was still the standard everywhere, except in Egypt, where Phoenician coinage was the standard.
Lysimachus, the general who took Thrace (in modern-day Turkey and Greece) risked the wrath of the gods by being the first to authorize coins bearing the image of a mortal Alexander the great. His head, adorned with a rams horn, the symbol of his strength, appears on the front, while the back carries the goodness Athena. She is seated and in her right hand is a tiny image of Nike, the winged goddess of victory.
Ptolemy of Egypt, another former general, also broke with tradition and became the first to mint coins with the image of a living mortal, himself. Assured of his power, he adopted the title king and placed his portrait on the front of his silver tetradrachmas. The eagle on the back is a symbol of his leader ship.
The Roman Republic
The first metallic money of the Romans was the AS, a copper rod one Roman foot long and inch in diameter. By customs, one hundred cooper rods were valued at one cow. Eventually, the As evolved into the shape of a coin and it bore simple designs, such as the head of a Roman god on the front and the prow of a ship on the reverse, a symbol of Romes reliance on maritime power.
About the time of Alexanders death, Rome began making silver coins. The as was reduced in size and value to a convenient half ounce. By the end of the 3rd century B.C., the Romans issued the silver DENARIUS, which became their principal coin.
Similar in both size and value to the Greeks drachma, the silver denarius accompanied the roman legions as they conquered the Italian peninsula and invaded Spain and Gaul. Though Alexander and his successors had tolerated the continuing existence of many local coins, the Romans melted down those symbols of competing power and turned them into Roman coins.
In the 1st century B.C., Rome accumulated a large gold reverse and Julius Caesar authorized minting of gold AUREUS, which became the principal monetary standard for the Roman Empire from Augustus to Constantine. Initially, the weight of the aureus was established at 40 to the pound
Caesar Augustus Brings In the Roman Empire
The story of Roman coinage at its heights begins with one of the greatest leaders of antiquity. His name was Gaius Octavius, but he is better known as Augustus, the name given him by the Roman senate in 27 B.C. He ruled from 31 B.C. to 14 A.D.
Under Augustus, the aureus became popular as far away as India and was supported everywhere by the prestige of Romans armies. He took the authority to mint the denarius away from the senate and stabilized its exchange rate with the aureus at 25-to-1. In Augustus time, the denariuss was apparently the usual pay for a days labor, probably a twelve-hour day.
The Augustan coinage system also included other lesser denominations. The smaller denominations were minted under the authority of the Roman senate and stamped with the letters SC (senatus consulto) which assured the pubic of the coins quality. This official authorization also gave value to these coins the metal itself was virtually worthless. The seal of the Roman senate is similar to the official message on the dollar bill: THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
Coin Used as a Political Tool an Idea Uniquely Roman
The aristocratic head of Augustus dominates his entire coinage, while the reverse depicted important events. Roman portrait coins acquainted the people with a rulers image and showed who was in power at a given moment. These coins also served as mini- newspapers, carrying information about wars, architectural triumphs and other achievements to the far corners of the Empire.
The tetradrachma of Augustus illustrate how Roman coins were used to sway public opinion. Struck around 28 B.C. this coin bears the figure of pax,
the Roman goddess of peace, and the caduceus she holds is a symbol of free commerce and the modern symbol of medicine. Next to the goddess is a Middle Eastern symbol, the cista mystica (magic box). Roman coins frequently carried symbols with special significance to a region to promote their acceptance among the local people. The cistophoric tetradrachma championed Augustus role as the leader who freed Asia minor from the yoke of arbitrary government.
Jewish coins
Roman rulers departed from their usual practice when they permitted the Jewish high priest in Jerusalem to mint small bronze coins, apparently for local circulation only.
However, the most famous Jewish coin, the silver SHEKEL, was made during the Jews first revolt against Roman rule. The coins, which were used for temple dues, bear inscription such as Jerusalem the Holy and Shekel of Israel. From their earliest appearance to the present day, Jewish coins have carried images of inanimate objects of religious significance. In design, Jews have adhered strictly to the commandment that thou shalt not make unto thee any graven images.
The Collapse of the Roman Coinage System
The Augustan coinage system restored price stability and stimulated trade in the Mediterranean. However, neither Augustus nor his successors could provide enough acceptable gold and silver coins to the farthest parts of the Empire. Deflationary trouble began. That was followed by excessive spending by several emperors and catastrophic inflation that helped undermine Roman coinage.
By the 3rd century A.D., even the craftsmanship and design of Roman coins had deteriorated. Finally, all confidence was lost in Roman coinage. Many people in the Western Roman Empire now reverted to a system of barter and the primitive weighing of metals which had existed a millennium before.
SPERM WHALES TEETH IN FIJI ISLAND
There was a time when sperm whales teeth, because of their relative rarity, were used as currency in the Fiji Islands. When the Islands became a British colony, new money was introduced in the form of notes and coins. Since the authorities wanted the new unfamiliar currency to be accepted and to circulate among the population as quickly as possible, they looked around for something to portray on the notes and coins that would convince the Fijians of their value as a means of exchange. What they chose were sperm whales teeth.
WHERE WAS PAPER MONEY INVENTED?
The Chinese are considered to be the inventors of paper money. The first forms of paper money emerged in China in the 7th century. In Europe paper money was at first used only as temporary makeshifts when there were not enough official coins in a besieged city. The first proper banknotes in Europe were issued in the 17th century.
CAN BANK NOTES BE REDEEMED IN GOLD
In the early days this was actually possible: although the banknotes that were in circulation alongside gold coins were practical, they were ultimately only proxy for the precious metal. Central banks were under obligation to redeem banknotes in gold upon request and to back its banknotes by gold. But since then the role of gold has changed considerably. Banknotes have been declared legal tender, the obligation to redeem banknotes in gold and the gold backing requirement have been abolished and coins that no longer contain any precious metal have been put into circulation.
HOW WILL THE VALUE OF MONEY BE PRESERVED WITHOUT
IT BEING BACKED BY GOLD
In the days when paper money had to be backed by gold, gold was its anchor. Since the gold output rose only slowly, there was hardly any danger that there would suddenly be too much gold and thus too much paper money in circulation. Today central banks undertake to increase the amount of money in circulation in carefully measured quantities. In this way they can ensure that the value of money is maintained. This undertaking on the part of central banks plays the anchor role. The transition from gold to paper representing a deposit of gold also marks the change from material value to exchange value. A gold or silver coin has a value even if no amount is stamped on it, whereas a banknote is only made of paper. The amount printed on a note, its exchange value, is much greater than the material value of the paper. The exchange determines what that piece of paper is worth when exchanged for goods. Nowadays most money no longer has any material value whatever, as it exists only as deposit money held on account at banks or post office.
WHERE WE ARE HEADING TO
GOODBYE TO CASH?
Gold and silver coins still had a material value. This is no longer the case with present-day notes and coins. Their value is set by the issuer; they are therefore merely a medium for conveying information about this value. Such information is independent of its medium. It can also be conveyed electronically. At present a number of forms of electronic money are being developed in direct competition with central bank cash. Will such money supersede cash? Whether and how quickly new forms of money catch on will depend on how much confidence those who subscribe to the systems that are being offered have in them and the number of people who use them. Nowadays, most goods and services can be paid without cash. But for small purchases coins and notes are still important because they are practical. In a number of business transactions it is traditional to pay in cash, e.g. for second-hand cars or on the livestock market. Although a cashless society would be technically feasible at the present time, cash still plays an important part in our everyday life. In fact, the use of cash in developed economies is continuing to decrease while the developing and third world countries are still making use of cash but there is strong indication that the reverse may be the case as development continues.
REFERENCES
John P. M. (2004) Coins of the Mediterranean world. Federal Reserve Bank
Information Department Philadelphia.
Swiss National Bank (2002) what is Money Really About? A Brief Introduction To The Swiss National Bank Swiss National Bank Publications Department.
Swiss National Bank (2002) The Swiss National Bank and The Vital
Commodity: Money. Swiss National Bank Publications Department.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
AN WHERE WE ARE HEADING TO
When bartering, it is a laborious process to establish the values of various goods in relation to each other. How many visits to the cinema are worth one car? How many apples will it cost the farmer to settle his dentists bill? And what happens if the doctor does not like the apples? What is really needed is a conversion table setting out the value of goods in terms of other goods. We would always need to carry in our heads a complicated conversion table giving the value of every item in terms of every other item. This is another case where money has an advantage: since everything is exchanged for one and the same unit of measurement- money-people can better compare prices and work them out easily. When all goods are bought and sold against the same medium of exchange, namely money, it becomes easier to set prices and to compare them.
WHAT EXACTLY IS MONEY?
An odd question at first glance. Of course, we all know what money is. Money is a generally accepted medium of exchange. In addition it can be put aside for later, i.e. used for saving: money is also a store of value. But as so often in life, it is all a bit more complicated. Let us put it to the test and ask: how much money do you have right now? Do not just count the cash in your pockets or your purse. Money also includes credit balances on postal, wage and other accounts that you can use to make payments. The money on these accounts is called deposit money because payment is effected simply by transferring a deposit from one account to another.
MONEY MAKES LIFE SIMPLER
When people still provide for themselves, they did not need money. Things for everyday use they made themselves. If people made more than they needed, they swapped the surplus for other goods. In small, close-knit communities that worked quite well, and there was still no need for money. But bartering has one disadvantage: many things are perishable and soon become impossible to trade. People engaging in bartering therefore came to prefer commodities that could survive the passage of time undamaged and were much sought-after. We need money to buy what we want and to pay for what we buy. We buy physical goods ranging from bread-rolls to our dream house. We also pay for services, like the calls we make on our mobile phone or holiday bookings. Thus did money come into being.
In the course of history many commodities have served as generally accepted medium of exchange- or money: shells, salt, tea, blankets, cigarettes, precious stones, silver, and gold.
WHY NOT USE COMODITIES
Seashells, animals teeth, rare stones or even bricks of dried tea have all been used as money in different cultures. Theoretically, any material can serve as money as long as it fulfils three conditions. Firstly, it must be accepted as a means of payment by everyone doing business together. Secondly, people must have confidence in the value of the chosen material. And finally, the material must be scarce since only a scarce good has any value. That is why sand is hardly suitable as money, whereas gold and silver, for example are. Money must be scarce, but not excessively so. In an efficiently functioning economy there must always be enough money available to ensure that the goods on offer can be bought and sold in unhindered trading.
About the cover: the one and e eagle, reminiscent of the American symbol, is from the tetra drachma of ptolomy l of Egypt, one of Alexander the Greats generals. The head shown is that of Hercules, from the tetra drachma of Alexander the Great, though some have suggested it may be a portrait of Alexander himself. This booklet was researched and written by John p. Mulcahy.
The coins we use as money today have a history that goes back 2,700years. Ancient peoples used metals, especially gold and silver, to mint coins. Rulers soon learned to standardize their coins and define them in terms to fixed quantities of gold and silver, thus establishing a rate of exchange between the two metals.
The usefulness of early forms of money was often restricted by its inconvenient size, limited geographic fluctuations in the supply and demand for metals. In ancient times, the greatest stimulus to trade came when rulers such as Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Augustus established uniform coinage systems that were widely recognized and accepted. Today, most currency is paper money, and coins are passed as small change. Still, coins have many of the same features that they had in ancient times. For example, modern coins have a government-approved design and value stamped on them, like the earliest coins did. Many nations still follow the Greek and Roman custom of recognizing famous people by placing their portraits on coins. Even the eagle, which appear on the back of the U.S. quarter, can trace its use as a symbol back to the coins of the ancient Mediterranean.
Most historians think the city-states of Greece and kingdoms of Asia Minor invented the first coins in the 7th century B.C. The kingdom of Lydia, in present-day Turkey, stamped lumps of precious metals with an official seal to guarantee their weight and purity. Lydian metal, stamped with King Croesus seal, become something everyone accepted. Pubic confidence in the kings money gave trade a great boost.
These Lydia coins called STATERS, were first made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver. About the size of a finger nail, these first coins were valuable. But, the mix of gold and silver was unpredictable, making some electrum staters worth more than others. Eventually, the Lydians stabilized the stater by minting two versions, one gold and one silver. This change produced the worlds first bimetallic standard.
The front of Croesus coin is stamped with a growling lions head facing the head of a horned bull. In ancient Mediterranean cultures, the bull was a symbol of strength and heroism. The lion may have been Croesus tribute to an ancient symbol of a maternal divinity.
The Greeks Catch on
By 630 B.C., the Greeks city-state of Aegina was stamping coins. Like the Lydian stater, the Aeginetan STATER carried the image of an animal, but instead of the loin and bull, Aegina used the sea turtle. The choice of the turtle may have been based on Greek myth or on the obvious facts that turtle abounded in the sea surrounding Aegina, and still do today. The back of the silver turtle starter had a simple design, making it one of the first coins to have a design on both sides.
The Athenian Tetradrachma
In the early 6th century B.C., Athens began making silver coins in small denominations that were convenient in everyday trade. One of the of the best know coins of this period is the Athenian TETRADRACHMA meant handful and came from the Greeks practices of using small copper and iron splits, measured by the handful, as money. A tetradrachma was worth four handfuls. These Athenian coins were also among the first coins in the region to have a design on both sides. The designs usually represented important religious, political or commercial matter.
The front of the tetradrachma shows the goddess Athena, for whom the Athens was named. Greek mythology said Athena gave the city its chief source of wealth, the olive tree, and Athenians remembered that when they designed their coins. The image of the goddess of wisdom and strength appears on the front, the first prominent representation of the human from on a coin. On the back, branches of the olive tree hang above the wing of the owl, Athenas symbol.
The Athenian tetradrachma was the first coin to become money. It was used widely in the trade among the Greeks and other peoples of the region.
Athenians Commemorate victory at marathon
The Athenians were one of the first to commemorate a military victory on their coins. Following the victory over the Persians at marathon in 490 B.C., the Athenians modified their tetradrachma to include a crescent moon between the owl and olive branches. The moon reminded Athenians that Darius, king of Persia, withdrew his forces under a waning moon.
The of Corinth Gallop Into Coinage History
Although the Athenian tetradrachma was the regions first international money, it was inconvenient for everyday use because it could not be exchanged for fractional coins. The city-state of Corinth was the first to issue coins in denominations and was also one of the earliest to have designs on both sides. The winged horse Pegasus was on all Corinthian coins, which is why they were called
The New Coin Economy
By the mid-6th century B.C., the economies of the Greeks city-states had become quite sophisticated. Lydia, Aegina, Athens, Corinth and others were all making coins and improving them. Designs became more refined, their implicit guarantees made them acceptable in a widening geographical area, and the issuance of different denominations made them more useful.
Croesus had introduced bimetallism and his small silver coins were commonplace in market throughout Asia Minor. Cyrus the Great, the Persian conqueror of Lydia, minted coins based on the Lydian example and spread them through out his empire.
By the time of the Persian wars, coins had become the most common of money in the Mediterranean world. In the 5th century B.C., silver Greeks coins were the principal medium of exchange used by trading states, occasionally supplemented by Persian gold. In the 4th century B.C., Corinthian silver were as widely accepted as the Athenian tetradrachma. Once bronze coins were introduced, they quickly became the preferred money for small denominations and everyday trade.
The result was a thriving world of trade in the Mediterranean. But it was still a small world, and there were still limits to both the geographic acceptance and commercial utility of coins. Trade was also disrupted by political disorders and wars.
THE ADVENT OF A NEW ORDER
The Macedonian Empire
In the mid-4th century B.C., the Greek city-states were brought under the rule of Macedonia, whose influence eventually spread to the rest of the Mediterranean world. The tetradrachma and staters of two Macedonian kings Philip 11 and his famous son, Alexander 111 (the Great) became the top international money of its time. The coins of Philip and Alexander were so popular that they were copied and counterfeited for centuries.
Philip worked to stabilize his Macedonian coinage system at a ratio of ten-to-one for gold and silver, a standard that set the exchange rate between gold silver for many year.
Alexander the Great was a military genius and more. He also standardized the money system for Macedonia and most of the countries from the Indus River to Naples. The stimulus to trade was astonishing.
Alexander kept the gold coins of his father but issued many more of them with the backing of captured Persian metal. He redesigned them, however, to reflect his unique preferences. The front of Alexanders silver tetradrachma bears the head of the head of the young Hercules (some suggest it is a portrait of Alexander), while the back bears the image of Zeus holding a scepter and an Eagle. The scepter has long been a symbol of the ruler, while the early Greeks believed that the soul of a dead king took the form of an eagle to watch over his kingdom. Others regard the eagle as Zeus in the animal.
Images of Mortal Men Placed On Coins
After Alexander the Greats death in 323 B.C., his generals divided his empire among themselves despite the break up of Macedonian Empire, Alexanders currency was still the standard everywhere, except in Egypt, where Phoenician coinage was the standard.
Lysimachus, the general who took Thrace (in modern-day Turkey and Greece) risked the wrath of the gods by being the first to authorize coins bearing the image of a mortal Alexander the great. His head, adorned with a rams horn, the symbol of his strength, appears on the front, while the back carries the goodness Athena. She is seated and in her right hand is a tiny image of Nike, the winged goddess of victory.
Ptolemy of Egypt, another former general, also broke with tradition and became the first to mint coins with the image of a living mortal, himself. Assured of his power, he adopted the title king and placed his portrait on the front of his silver tetradrachmas. The eagle on the back is a symbol of his leader ship.
The Roman Republic
The first metallic money of the Romans was the AS, a copper rod one Roman foot long and inch in diameter. By customs, one hundred cooper rods were valued at one cow. Eventually, the As evolved into the shape of a coin and it bore simple designs, such as the head of a Roman god on the front and the prow of a ship on the reverse, a symbol of Romes reliance on maritime power.
About the time of Alexanders death, Rome began making silver coins. The as was reduced in size and value to a convenient half ounce. By the end of the 3rd century B.C., the Romans issued the silver DENARIUS, which became their principal coin.
Similar in both size and value to the Greeks drachma, the silver denarius accompanied the roman legions as they conquered the Italian peninsula and invaded Spain and Gaul. Though Alexander and his successors had tolerated the continuing existence of many local coins, the Romans melted down those symbols of competing power and turned them into Roman coins.
In the 1st century B.C., Rome accumulated a large gold reverse and Julius Caesar authorized minting of gold AUREUS, which became the principal monetary standard for the Roman Empire from Augustus to Constantine. Initially, the weight of the aureus was established at 40 to the pound
Caesar Augustus Brings In the Roman Empire
The story of Roman coinage at its heights begins with one of the greatest leaders of antiquity. His name was Gaius Octavius, but he is better known as Augustus, the name given him by the Roman senate in 27 B.C. He ruled from 31 B.C. to 14 A.D.
Under Augustus, the aureus became popular as far away as India and was supported everywhere by the prestige of Romans armies. He took the authority to mint the denarius away from the senate and stabilized its exchange rate with the aureus at 25-to-1. In Augustus time, the denariuss was apparently the usual pay for a days labor, probably a twelve-hour day.
The Augustan coinage system also included other lesser denominations. The smaller denominations were minted under the authority of the Roman senate and stamped with the letters SC (senatus consulto) which assured the pubic of the coins quality. This official authorization also gave value to these coins the metal itself was virtually worthless. The seal of the Roman senate is similar to the official message on the dollar bill: THIS NOTE IS LEGAL TENDER FOR ALL DEBTS PUBLIC AND PRIVATE.
Coin Used as a Political Tool an Idea Uniquely Roman
The aristocratic head of Augustus dominates his entire coinage, while the reverse depicted important events. Roman portrait coins acquainted the people with a rulers image and showed who was in power at a given moment. These coins also served as mini- newspapers, carrying information about wars, architectural triumphs and other achievements to the far corners of the Empire.
The tetradrachma of Augustus illustrate how Roman coins were used to sway public opinion. Struck around 28 B.C. this coin bears the figure of pax,
the Roman goddess of peace, and the caduceus she holds is a symbol of free commerce and the modern symbol of medicine. Next to the goddess is a Middle Eastern symbol, the cista mystica (magic box). Roman coins frequently carried symbols with special significance to a region to promote their acceptance among the local people. The cistophoric tetradrachma championed Augustus role as the leader who freed Asia minor from the yoke of arbitrary government.
Jewish coins
Roman rulers departed from their usual practice when they permitted the Jewish high priest in Jerusalem to mint small bronze coins, apparently for local circulation only.
However, the most famous Jewish coin, the silver SHEKEL, was made during the Jews first revolt against Roman rule. The coins, which were used for temple dues, bear inscription such as Jerusalem the Holy and Shekel of Israel. From their earliest appearance to the present day, Jewish coins have carried images of inanimate objects of religious significance. In design, Jews have adhered strictly to the commandment that thou shalt not make unto thee any graven images.
The Collapse of the Roman Coinage System
The Augustan coinage system restored price stability and stimulated trade in the Mediterranean. However, neither Augustus nor his successors could provide enough acceptable gold and silver coins to the farthest parts of the Empire. Deflationary trouble began. That was followed by excessive spending by several emperors and catastrophic inflation that helped undermine Roman coinage.
By the 3rd century A.D., even the craftsmanship and design of Roman coins had deteriorated. Finally, all confidence was lost in Roman coinage. Many people in the Western Roman Empire now reverted to a system of barter and the primitive weighing of metals which had existed a millennium before.
SPERM WHALES TEETH IN FIJI ISLAND
There was a time when sperm whales teeth, because of their relative rarity, were used as currency in the Fiji Islands. When the Islands became a British colony, new money was introduced in the form of notes and coins. Since the authorities wanted the new unfamiliar currency to be accepted and to circulate among the population as quickly as possible, they looked around for something to portray on the notes and coins that would convince the Fijians of their value as a means of exchange. What they chose were sperm whales teeth.
WHERE WAS PAPER MONEY INVENTED?
The Chinese are considered to be the inventors of paper money. The first forms of paper money emerged in China in the 7th century. In Europe paper money was at first used only as temporary makeshifts when there were not enough official coins in a besieged city. The first proper banknotes in Europe were issued in the 17th century.
CAN BANK NOTES BE REDEEMED IN GOLD
In the early days this was actually possible: although the banknotes that were in circulation alongside gold coins were practical, they were ultimately only proxy for the precious metal. Central banks were under obligation to redeem banknotes in gold upon request and to back its banknotes by gold. But since then the role of gold has changed considerably. Banknotes have been declared legal tender, the obligation to redeem banknotes in gold and the gold backing requirement have been abolished and coins that no longer contain any precious metal have been put into circulation.
HOW WILL THE VALUE OF MONEY BE PRESERVED WITHOUT
IT BEING BACKED BY GOLD
In the days when paper money had to be backed by gold, gold was its anchor. Since the gold output rose only slowly, there was hardly any danger that there would suddenly be too much gold and thus too much paper money in circulation. Today central banks undertake to increase the amount of money in circulation in carefully measured quantities. In this way they can ensure that the value of money is maintained. This undertaking on the part of central banks plays the anchor role. The transition from gold to paper representing a deposit of gold also marks the change from material value to exchange value. A gold or silver coin has a value even if no amount is stamped on it, whereas a banknote is only made of paper. The amount printed on a note, its exchange value, is much greater than the material value of the paper. The exchange determines what that piece of paper is worth when exchanged for goods. Nowadays most money no longer has any material value whatever, as it exists only as deposit money held on account at banks or post office.
WHERE WE ARE HEADING TO
GOODBYE TO CASH?
Gold and silver coins still had a material value. This is no longer the case with present-day notes and coins. Their value is set by the issuer; they are therefore merely a medium for conveying information about this value. Such information is independent of its medium. It can also be conveyed electronically. At present a number of forms of electronic money are being developed in direct competition with central bank cash. Will such money supersede cash? Whether and how quickly new forms of money catch on will depend on how much confidence those who subscribe to the systems that are being offered have in them and the number of people who use them. Nowadays, most goods and services can be paid without cash. But for small purchases coins and notes are still important because they are practical. In a number of business transactions it is traditional to pay in cash, e.g. for second-hand cars or on the livestock market. Although a cashless society would be technically feasible at the present time, cash still plays an important part in our everyday life. In fact, the use of cash in developed economies is continuing to decrease while the developing and third world countries are still making use of cash but there is strong indication that the reverse may be the case as development continues.
REFERENCES
John P. M. (2004) Coins of the Mediterranean world. Federal Reserve Bank
Information Department Philadelphia.
Swiss National Bank (2002) what is Money Really About? A Brief Introduction To The Swiss National Bank Swiss National Bank Publications Department.
Swiss National Bank (2002) The Swiss National Bank and The Vital
Commodity: Money. Swiss National Bank Publications Department.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:smile
- Music:Tokio Hotel
In the third century BC, when Roman ambassadors were negotiating with the Greek city of Tarentum, an ill-judged laugh put paid to any hope of peace. Ancient writers disagree about the exact cause of the mirth, but they agree that Greek laughter was the final straw in driving the Romans to war.
One account points the finger at the bad Greek of the leading Roman ambassador, Postumius. It was so ungrammatical and strangely accented that the Tarentines could not conceal their amusement. The historian Dio Cassius, by contrast, laid the blame on the Romans’ national dress. “So far from receiving them decently”, he wrote, “the Tarentines laughed at the Roman toga among other things. It was the city garb, which we use in the Forum. And the envoys had put this on, whether to make a suitably dignified impression or out of fear – thinking that it would make the Tarentines respect them. But in fact groups of revellers jeered at them.” One of these revellers, he goes on, even went so far as “to bend down and shit” all over the offending garment. If true, this may also have contributed to the Roman outrage. Yet it is the laughter that Postumius emphasized in his menacing, and prophetic, reply. “Laugh, laugh while you can. For you’ll be weeping a long time when you wash this garment clean with your blood.”
Despite the menace, this story has an immediate appeal. It offers a rare glimpse of how the pompous, toga-clad Romans could appear to their fellow inhabitants of the ancient Mediterranean; and a rare confirmation that the billowing, cumbersome wrap-around toga could look as comic to the Greeks of South Italy as it does to us. But at the same time the story combines some of the key ingredients of ancient laughter: power, ethnicity and the nagging sense that those who mocked their enemies would soon find themselves laughed at. It was, in fact, a firm rule of ancient “gelastics” – to borrow a term (from the Greek gelan, to laugh) from Stephen Halliwell’s weighty new study of Greek laughter – that the joker was never far from being the butt of his own jokes. The Latin adjective ridiculus, for example, referred both to something that was laughable (“ridiculous” in our sense) and to something or someone who actively made people laugh.
Laughter was always a favourite device of ancient monarchs and tyrants, as well as being a weapon used against them. The good king, of course, knew how to take a joke. The tolerance of the Emperor Augustus in the face of quips and banter of all sorts was still being celebrated four centuries after his death. One of the most famous one-liners of the ancient world, with an afterlife that stretches into the twentieth century (it gets retold, with a different cast of characters but the same punchline, both in Freud and in Iris Murdoch’s The Sea, The Sea), was a joking insinuation about Augustus’ paternity. Spotting, so the story goes, a man from the provinces who looked much like himself, the Emperor asked if the man’s mother had ever worked in the palace. “No”, came the reply, “but my father did.” Augustus wisely did no more than grin and bear it.
Tyrants, by contrast, did not take kindly to jokes at their own expense, even if they enjoyed laughing at their subjects. Sulla, the murderous dictator of the first century BC, was a well-known philogelos (“laughter-lover”), while schoolboy practical jokes were among the techniques of humiliation employed by the despot Elagabalus. He is said to have had fun, for example, seating his dinner guests on inflatable cushions, and then seeing them disappear under the table as the air was gradually let out. But the defining mark of ancient autocrats (and a sign of power gone – hilariously – mad) was their attempt to control laughter. Some tried to ban it (as Caligula did, as part of the public mourning on the death of his sister). Others imposed it on their unfortunate subordinates at the most inappropriate moments. Caligula, again, had a knack for turning this into exquisite torture: he is said to have forced an old man to watch the execution of his son one morning and, that evening, to have invited the man to dinner and insisted that he laugh and joke. Why, asks the philosopher Seneca, did the victim go along with all this? Answer: he had another son.
Ethnicity, too, was good for a laugh, as the story of the Tarentines and the toga shows. Plenty more examples can be found in the only joke book to have survived from the ancient world. Known as the Philogelos, this is a composite collection of 260 or so gags in Greek probably put together in the fourth century ad but including – as such collections often do – some that go back many years earlier. It is a moot point whether the Philogelos offers a window onto the world of ancient popular laughter (the kind of book you took to the barber’s shop, as one antiquarian Byzantine commentary has been taken to imply), or whether it is, more likely, an encyclopedic compilation by some late imperial academic. Either way, here we find jokes about doctors, men with bad breath, eunuchs, barbers, men with hernias, bald men, shady fortune-tellers, and more of the colourful (mostly male) characters of ancient life.
Pride of place in the Philogelos goes to the “egg-heads”, who are the subject of almost half the jokes for their literal-minded scholasticism (“An egg-head doctor was seeing a patient. ‘Doctor’, he said, ‘when I get up in the morning I feel dizzy for 20 minutes.’ ‘Get up 20 minutes later, then’”). After the “egg-heads”, various ethnic jokes come a close second. In a series of gags reminiscent of modern Irish or Polish jokes, the residents of three Greek towns – Abdera, Kyme and Sidon – are ridiculed for their “how many Abderites does it take to change a light bulb?” style of stupidity. Why these three places in particular, we have no idea. But their inhabitants are portrayed as being as literal-minded as the egg-heads, and even more obtuse. “An Abderite saw a eunuch talking to a woman and asked if she was his wife. When he replied that eunuchs can’t have wives, the Abderite asked, ‘So is she your daughter then?’” And there are many others on predictably similar lines.
The most puzzling aspect of the jokes in the Philogelos is the fact that so many of them still seem vaguely funny. Across two millennia, their hit-rate for raising a smile is better than that of most modern joke books. And unlike the impenetrably obscure cartoons in nineteenth-century editions of Punch, these seem to speak our own comic language. In fact, the stand-up comedian Jim Bowen has recently managed to get a good laugh out of twenty-first-century audiences with a show entirely based on jokes from the Philogelos (including one he claims – a little generously – to be a direct ancestor of Monty Python’s Dead Parrot sketch).
Why do they seem so modern? In the case of Jim Bowen’s performance, careful translation and selection has something to do with it (I doubt that contemporary audiences would split their sides at the one about the crucified athlete who looked as if he was flying instead of running). There is also very little background knowledge required to see the point of these stories, in contrast to the precisely topical references that underlie so many Punch cartoons. Not to mention the fact that some of Bowens audience are no doubt laughing at the sheer incongruity of listening to a modern comic telling 2,000-year-old gags, good or bad.
But there is more to it than that. It is not, I suspect, much to do with supposedly “universal” topics of humour (though death and mistaken identity bulked large then as now). It is more a question of a direct legacy from the ancient world to our own, modern, traditions of laughter. Anyone who has been a parent, or has watched parents with their children, will know that human beings learn how to laugh, and what to laugh at (clowns OK, the disabled not). On a grander scale, it is – in large part at least – from the Renaissance tradition of joking that modern Western culture itself has learned how to laugh at “jokes”; and that tradition looked straight back to antiquity. One of the favourite gags in Renaissance joke books was the “No-but-my-father-did” quip about paternity, while the legendary Cambridge classicist Richard Porson is supposed to have claimed that most of the jokes in the famous eighteenth-century joke book Joe Miller’s Jests could be traced back to the Philogelos. We can still laugh at these ancient jokes, in other words, because it is from them that we have learned what “laughing at jokes” is.
This is not to say, of course, that all the coordinates of ancient laughter map directly onto our own. Far from it. Even in the Philogelos a few of the jokes remain totally baffling (though perhaps they are just bad jokes). But, more generally, Greeks and Romans could laugh at different things (the blind, for example – though rarely, unlike us, the deaf); and they could laugh, and provoke laughter, on different occasions to gain different ends. Ridicule was a standard weapon in the ancient courtroom, as it is only rarely in our own. Cicero, antiquity’s greatest orator, was also by repute its greatest joker; far too funny for his own good, some sober citizens thought.
There are some particular puzzles, too, ancient comedy foremost among them. There may be little doubt that the Athenian audience laughed heartily at the plays of Aristophanes, as we can still. But very few modern readers have been able to find much to laugh at in the hugely successful comedies of the fourth-century dramatist Menander, formulaic and moralizing as they were. Are we missing the joke? Or were they simply not funny in that laugh-out-loud sense? Discussing the plays in Greek Laughter, Halliwell offers a possible solution. Conceding that “Menandrian humour, in the broadest sense of the term, is resistant to confident diagnosis” (that is, we don’t know if, or how, it is funny), he neatly turns the problem on its head. They are not intended to raise laughs; rather “they are actually in part about laughter”. Their complicated “comic” plots, and the contrasts set up within them between characters we might want to laugh at and those we want to laugh with, must prompt the audience or reader to reflect on the very conditions that make laughter possible or impossible, socially acceptable or unacceptable. For Halliwell, in other words, Menander’s “comedy” functions as a dramatic essay on the fundamental principles of Greek gelastics.
On other occasions, it is not always immediately clear how or why the ancients ranked things as they did, on the scale between faintly amusing and very funny indeed. Halliwell mentions in passing a series of anecdotes that tell of famous characters from antiquity who laughed so much that they died. Zeuxis, the famous fourth-century Greek painter, is one. He collapsed, it is said, after looking at his own painting of an elderly woman. The philosopher Chrysippus and the dramatist Polemon, a contemporary of Menander, are others. Both of these were finished off, as a similar story in each case relates, after they had seen an ass eating some figs that had been prepared for their own meal. They told their servants to give the animal some wine as well – and died laughing at the sight.
The conceit of death by laughter is a curious one and not restricted to the ancient world. Anthony Trollope, for example, is reputed to have “corpsed” during a reading of F. Anstey’s comic novel Vice Versa. But what was it about these particular sights (or Vice Versa, for that matter) that proved so devastatingly funny? In the case of Zeuxis, it is not hard to detect a well-known strain of ancient misogyny. In the other cases, it is presumably the confusion of categories between animal and human that produces the laughter – as we can see in other such stories from antiquity.
For a similar confusion underlies the story of one determined Roman agelast (“non-laugher”), the elder Marcus Crassus, who is reputed to have cracked up just once in his lifetime. It was after he had seen a donkey eating thistles. “Thistles are like lettuce to the lips of a donkey”, he mused (quoting a well-known ancient proverb) – and laughed. There is something reminiscent here of the laughter provoked by the old-fashioned chimpanzees’ tea parties, once hosted by traditional zoos (and enjoyed for generations, until they fell victim to modern squeamishness about animal performance and display). Ancient laughter, too, it seems, operated on the boundaries between human and other species. Highlighting the attempts at boundary crossing, it both challenged and reaffirmed the division between man and animal.
Halliwell insists that one distinguishing feature of ancient gelastic culture is the central role of laughter in a wide range of ancient philosophical, cultural and literary theory. In the ancient academy, unlike the modern, philosophers and theorists were expected to have a view about laughter, its function and meaning. This is Halliwell’s primary interest.
His book offers a wide survey of Greek laughter from Homer to the early Christians (an increasingly gloomy crowd, capable of seeing laughter as the work of the Devil), and the introduction is quite the best brief overview of the role of laughter in any historical period that I have ever read. But Greek Laughter is not really intended for those who want to discover what the Greeks found funny or laughed at. There is, significantly, no discussion of the Philogelos and no entry for “jokes” in the index. The main focus is on laughter as it appears within, and is explored by, Greek literary and philosophical texts.
In those terms, some of his discussions are brilliant. He gives a clear and cautious account of the views of Aristotle – a useful antidote to some of the wilder attempts to fill the gap caused by the notorious loss of Aristotle’s treatise on comedy. But the highlight is his discussion of Democritus, the fifth-century philosopher and atomist, also renowned as antiquity’s most inveterate laugher. An eighteenth-century painting of this “laughing philosopher” decorates the front cover of Greek Laughter. Here Democritus adopts a wide grin, while pointing his bony finger at the viewer. It is a slightly unnerving combination of jollity and threat.
The most revealing ancient discussion of Democritus’ laughing habit is found in an epistolary novel of Roman date, included among the so-called Letters of Hippocrates – a collection ascribed to the legendary founding father of Greek medicine, but in fact written centuries after his death. The fictional exchanges in this novel tell the story of Hippocrates’ encounter with Democritus. In the philosopher’s home city, his compatriots had become concerned at the way he laughed at everything he came across (from funerals to political success) and concluded that he must be mad. So they summoned the most famous doctor in the world to cure him. When Hippocrates arrived, however, he soon discovered that Democritus was saner than his fellow citizens. For he alone had recognized the absurdity of human existence, and was therefore entirely justified in laughing at it.
Under Halliwell’s detailed scrutiny, this epistolary novel turns out to be much more than a stereotypical tale of misapprehension righted, or of a madman revealed to be sane. How far, he asks, should we see the story of Democritus as a Greek equivalent of the kind of “existential absurdity” now more familiar from Samuel Beckett or Albert Camus? Again, as with his analysis of Menander, he argues that the text raises fundamental questions about laughter. The debates staged between Hippocrates and Democritus amount to a series of reflections on just how far a completely absurdist position is possible to sustain. Democritus’ fellow citizens take him to be laughing at literally everything; and, more philosophically, Hippocrates wonders at one point whether his patient has glimpsed (as Halliwell puts it) “a cosmic absurdity at the heart of infinity”. Yet, in the end, that is not the position that Democritus adopts. For he regards as “exempt from mockery” the position of the sage, who is able to perceive the general absurdity of the world. Democritus does not, in other words, laugh at himself, or at his own theorizing.
What Halliwell does not stress, however, is that Democritus’ home city is none other than Abdera – the town in Thrace whose people were the butt of so many jokes in the Philogelos. Indeed, in a footnote, he briefly dismisses the idea “that Democritean laughter itself spawned the proverbial stupidity of the Abderites”. But those interested in the practice as much as the theory of ancient laughter will surely not dismiss the connection so quickly. For it was not just a question of a “laughing philosopher” or of dumb citizens who didn’t know what a eunuch was. Cicero, too, could use the name of the town as shorthand for a topsy-turvy mess: “It’s all Abdera here”, he writes of Rome. Whatever the original reason, by the first century BC, “Abdera” (like modern Tunbridge Wells, perhaps, though with rather different associations) had become one of those names that could be guaranteed to get the ancients laughing.
Stephen Halliwell
GREEK LAUGHTER
A study of cultural psychology from Homer to early Christianity
632pp. Cambridge University Press. £70 (paperback, £32.50). US $140 (paperback, $65).
978 0 521 88900 1
Mary Beard is the author of The Roman Triumph published in 2007 and Pompeii: The life of a Roman town, 2008. She is Classics editor of the TLS.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
One account points the finger at the bad Greek of the leading Roman ambassador, Postumius. It was so ungrammatical and strangely accented that the Tarentines could not conceal their amusement. The historian Dio Cassius, by contrast, laid the blame on the Romans’ national dress. “So far from receiving them decently”, he wrote, “the Tarentines laughed at the Roman toga among other things. It was the city garb, which we use in the Forum. And the envoys had put this on, whether to make a suitably dignified impression or out of fear – thinking that it would make the Tarentines respect them. But in fact groups of revellers jeered at them.” One of these revellers, he goes on, even went so far as “to bend down and shit” all over the offending garment. If true, this may also have contributed to the Roman outrage. Yet it is the laughter that Postumius emphasized in his menacing, and prophetic, reply. “Laugh, laugh while you can. For you’ll be weeping a long time when you wash this garment clean with your blood.”
Despite the menace, this story has an immediate appeal. It offers a rare glimpse of how the pompous, toga-clad Romans could appear to their fellow inhabitants of the ancient Mediterranean; and a rare confirmation that the billowing, cumbersome wrap-around toga could look as comic to the Greeks of South Italy as it does to us. But at the same time the story combines some of the key ingredients of ancient laughter: power, ethnicity and the nagging sense that those who mocked their enemies would soon find themselves laughed at. It was, in fact, a firm rule of ancient “gelastics” – to borrow a term (from the Greek gelan, to laugh) from Stephen Halliwell’s weighty new study of Greek laughter – that the joker was never far from being the butt of his own jokes. The Latin adjective ridiculus, for example, referred both to something that was laughable (“ridiculous” in our sense) and to something or someone who actively made people laugh.
Laughter was always a favourite device of ancient monarchs and tyrants, as well as being a weapon used against them. The good king, of course, knew how to take a joke. The tolerance of the Emperor Augustus in the face of quips and banter of all sorts was still being celebrated four centuries after his death. One of the most famous one-liners of the ancient world, with an afterlife that stretches into the twentieth century (it gets retold, with a different cast of characters but the same punchline, both in Freud and in Iris Murdoch’s The Sea, The Sea), was a joking insinuation about Augustus’ paternity. Spotting, so the story goes, a man from the provinces who looked much like himself, the Emperor asked if the man’s mother had ever worked in the palace. “No”, came the reply, “but my father did.” Augustus wisely did no more than grin and bear it.
Tyrants, by contrast, did not take kindly to jokes at their own expense, even if they enjoyed laughing at their subjects. Sulla, the murderous dictator of the first century BC, was a well-known philogelos (“laughter-lover”), while schoolboy practical jokes were among the techniques of humiliation employed by the despot Elagabalus. He is said to have had fun, for example, seating his dinner guests on inflatable cushions, and then seeing them disappear under the table as the air was gradually let out. But the defining mark of ancient autocrats (and a sign of power gone – hilariously – mad) was their attempt to control laughter. Some tried to ban it (as Caligula did, as part of the public mourning on the death of his sister). Others imposed it on their unfortunate subordinates at the most inappropriate moments. Caligula, again, had a knack for turning this into exquisite torture: he is said to have forced an old man to watch the execution of his son one morning and, that evening, to have invited the man to dinner and insisted that he laugh and joke. Why, asks the philosopher Seneca, did the victim go along with all this? Answer: he had another son.
Ethnicity, too, was good for a laugh, as the story of the Tarentines and the toga shows. Plenty more examples can be found in the only joke book to have survived from the ancient world. Known as the Philogelos, this is a composite collection of 260 or so gags in Greek probably put together in the fourth century ad but including – as such collections often do – some that go back many years earlier. It is a moot point whether the Philogelos offers a window onto the world of ancient popular laughter (the kind of book you took to the barber’s shop, as one antiquarian Byzantine commentary has been taken to imply), or whether it is, more likely, an encyclopedic compilation by some late imperial academic. Either way, here we find jokes about doctors, men with bad breath, eunuchs, barbers, men with hernias, bald men, shady fortune-tellers, and more of the colourful (mostly male) characters of ancient life.
Pride of place in the Philogelos goes to the “egg-heads”, who are the subject of almost half the jokes for their literal-minded scholasticism (“An egg-head doctor was seeing a patient. ‘Doctor’, he said, ‘when I get up in the morning I feel dizzy for 20 minutes.’ ‘Get up 20 minutes later, then’”). After the “egg-heads”, various ethnic jokes come a close second. In a series of gags reminiscent of modern Irish or Polish jokes, the residents of three Greek towns – Abdera, Kyme and Sidon – are ridiculed for their “how many Abderites does it take to change a light bulb?” style of stupidity. Why these three places in particular, we have no idea. But their inhabitants are portrayed as being as literal-minded as the egg-heads, and even more obtuse. “An Abderite saw a eunuch talking to a woman and asked if she was his wife. When he replied that eunuchs can’t have wives, the Abderite asked, ‘So is she your daughter then?’” And there are many others on predictably similar lines.
The most puzzling aspect of the jokes in the Philogelos is the fact that so many of them still seem vaguely funny. Across two millennia, their hit-rate for raising a smile is better than that of most modern joke books. And unlike the impenetrably obscure cartoons in nineteenth-century editions of Punch, these seem to speak our own comic language. In fact, the stand-up comedian Jim Bowen has recently managed to get a good laugh out of twenty-first-century audiences with a show entirely based on jokes from the Philogelos (including one he claims – a little generously – to be a direct ancestor of Monty Python’s Dead Parrot sketch).
Why do they seem so modern? In the case of Jim Bowen’s performance, careful translation and selection has something to do with it (I doubt that contemporary audiences would split their sides at the one about the crucified athlete who looked as if he was flying instead of running). There is also very little background knowledge required to see the point of these stories, in contrast to the precisely topical references that underlie so many Punch cartoons. Not to mention the fact that some of Bowens audience are no doubt laughing at the sheer incongruity of listening to a modern comic telling 2,000-year-old gags, good or bad.
But there is more to it than that. It is not, I suspect, much to do with supposedly “universal” topics of humour (though death and mistaken identity bulked large then as now). It is more a question of a direct legacy from the ancient world to our own, modern, traditions of laughter. Anyone who has been a parent, or has watched parents with their children, will know that human beings learn how to laugh, and what to laugh at (clowns OK, the disabled not). On a grander scale, it is – in large part at least – from the Renaissance tradition of joking that modern Western culture itself has learned how to laugh at “jokes”; and that tradition looked straight back to antiquity. One of the favourite gags in Renaissance joke books was the “No-but-my-father-did” quip about paternity, while the legendary Cambridge classicist Richard Porson is supposed to have claimed that most of the jokes in the famous eighteenth-century joke book Joe Miller’s Jests could be traced back to the Philogelos. We can still laugh at these ancient jokes, in other words, because it is from them that we have learned what “laughing at jokes” is.
This is not to say, of course, that all the coordinates of ancient laughter map directly onto our own. Far from it. Even in the Philogelos a few of the jokes remain totally baffling (though perhaps they are just bad jokes). But, more generally, Greeks and Romans could laugh at different things (the blind, for example – though rarely, unlike us, the deaf); and they could laugh, and provoke laughter, on different occasions to gain different ends. Ridicule was a standard weapon in the ancient courtroom, as it is only rarely in our own. Cicero, antiquity’s greatest orator, was also by repute its greatest joker; far too funny for his own good, some sober citizens thought.
There are some particular puzzles, too, ancient comedy foremost among them. There may be little doubt that the Athenian audience laughed heartily at the plays of Aristophanes, as we can still. But very few modern readers have been able to find much to laugh at in the hugely successful comedies of the fourth-century dramatist Menander, formulaic and moralizing as they were. Are we missing the joke? Or were they simply not funny in that laugh-out-loud sense? Discussing the plays in Greek Laughter, Halliwell offers a possible solution. Conceding that “Menandrian humour, in the broadest sense of the term, is resistant to confident diagnosis” (that is, we don’t know if, or how, it is funny), he neatly turns the problem on its head. They are not intended to raise laughs; rather “they are actually in part about laughter”. Their complicated “comic” plots, and the contrasts set up within them between characters we might want to laugh at and those we want to laugh with, must prompt the audience or reader to reflect on the very conditions that make laughter possible or impossible, socially acceptable or unacceptable. For Halliwell, in other words, Menander’s “comedy” functions as a dramatic essay on the fundamental principles of Greek gelastics.
On other occasions, it is not always immediately clear how or why the ancients ranked things as they did, on the scale between faintly amusing and very funny indeed. Halliwell mentions in passing a series of anecdotes that tell of famous characters from antiquity who laughed so much that they died. Zeuxis, the famous fourth-century Greek painter, is one. He collapsed, it is said, after looking at his own painting of an elderly woman. The philosopher Chrysippus and the dramatist Polemon, a contemporary of Menander, are others. Both of these were finished off, as a similar story in each case relates, after they had seen an ass eating some figs that had been prepared for their own meal. They told their servants to give the animal some wine as well – and died laughing at the sight.
The conceit of death by laughter is a curious one and not restricted to the ancient world. Anthony Trollope, for example, is reputed to have “corpsed” during a reading of F. Anstey’s comic novel Vice Versa. But what was it about these particular sights (or Vice Versa, for that matter) that proved so devastatingly funny? In the case of Zeuxis, it is not hard to detect a well-known strain of ancient misogyny. In the other cases, it is presumably the confusion of categories between animal and human that produces the laughter – as we can see in other such stories from antiquity.
For a similar confusion underlies the story of one determined Roman agelast (“non-laugher”), the elder Marcus Crassus, who is reputed to have cracked up just once in his lifetime. It was after he had seen a donkey eating thistles. “Thistles are like lettuce to the lips of a donkey”, he mused (quoting a well-known ancient proverb) – and laughed. There is something reminiscent here of the laughter provoked by the old-fashioned chimpanzees’ tea parties, once hosted by traditional zoos (and enjoyed for generations, until they fell victim to modern squeamishness about animal performance and display). Ancient laughter, too, it seems, operated on the boundaries between human and other species. Highlighting the attempts at boundary crossing, it both challenged and reaffirmed the division between man and animal.
Halliwell insists that one distinguishing feature of ancient gelastic culture is the central role of laughter in a wide range of ancient philosophical, cultural and literary theory. In the ancient academy, unlike the modern, philosophers and theorists were expected to have a view about laughter, its function and meaning. This is Halliwell’s primary interest.
His book offers a wide survey of Greek laughter from Homer to the early Christians (an increasingly gloomy crowd, capable of seeing laughter as the work of the Devil), and the introduction is quite the best brief overview of the role of laughter in any historical period that I have ever read. But Greek Laughter is not really intended for those who want to discover what the Greeks found funny or laughed at. There is, significantly, no discussion of the Philogelos and no entry for “jokes” in the index. The main focus is on laughter as it appears within, and is explored by, Greek literary and philosophical texts.
In those terms, some of his discussions are brilliant. He gives a clear and cautious account of the views of Aristotle – a useful antidote to some of the wilder attempts to fill the gap caused by the notorious loss of Aristotle’s treatise on comedy. But the highlight is his discussion of Democritus, the fifth-century philosopher and atomist, also renowned as antiquity’s most inveterate laugher. An eighteenth-century painting of this “laughing philosopher” decorates the front cover of Greek Laughter. Here Democritus adopts a wide grin, while pointing his bony finger at the viewer. It is a slightly unnerving combination of jollity and threat.
The most revealing ancient discussion of Democritus’ laughing habit is found in an epistolary novel of Roman date, included among the so-called Letters of Hippocrates – a collection ascribed to the legendary founding father of Greek medicine, but in fact written centuries after his death. The fictional exchanges in this novel tell the story of Hippocrates’ encounter with Democritus. In the philosopher’s home city, his compatriots had become concerned at the way he laughed at everything he came across (from funerals to political success) and concluded that he must be mad. So they summoned the most famous doctor in the world to cure him. When Hippocrates arrived, however, he soon discovered that Democritus was saner than his fellow citizens. For he alone had recognized the absurdity of human existence, and was therefore entirely justified in laughing at it.
Under Halliwell’s detailed scrutiny, this epistolary novel turns out to be much more than a stereotypical tale of misapprehension righted, or of a madman revealed to be sane. How far, he asks, should we see the story of Democritus as a Greek equivalent of the kind of “existential absurdity” now more familiar from Samuel Beckett or Albert Camus? Again, as with his analysis of Menander, he argues that the text raises fundamental questions about laughter. The debates staged between Hippocrates and Democritus amount to a series of reflections on just how far a completely absurdist position is possible to sustain. Democritus’ fellow citizens take him to be laughing at literally everything; and, more philosophically, Hippocrates wonders at one point whether his patient has glimpsed (as Halliwell puts it) “a cosmic absurdity at the heart of infinity”. Yet, in the end, that is not the position that Democritus adopts. For he regards as “exempt from mockery” the position of the sage, who is able to perceive the general absurdity of the world. Democritus does not, in other words, laugh at himself, or at his own theorizing.
What Halliwell does not stress, however, is that Democritus’ home city is none other than Abdera – the town in Thrace whose people were the butt of so many jokes in the Philogelos. Indeed, in a footnote, he briefly dismisses the idea “that Democritean laughter itself spawned the proverbial stupidity of the Abderites”. But those interested in the practice as much as the theory of ancient laughter will surely not dismiss the connection so quickly. For it was not just a question of a “laughing philosopher” or of dumb citizens who didn’t know what a eunuch was. Cicero, too, could use the name of the town as shorthand for a topsy-turvy mess: “It’s all Abdera here”, he writes of Rome. Whatever the original reason, by the first century BC, “Abdera” (like modern Tunbridge Wells, perhaps, though with rather different associations) had become one of those names that could be guaranteed to get the ancients laughing.
Stephen Halliwell
GREEK LAUGHTER
A study of cultural psychology from Homer to early Christianity
632pp. Cambridge University Press. £70 (paperback, £32.50). US $140 (paperback, $65).
978 0 521 88900 1
Mary Beard is the author of The Roman Triumph published in 2007 and Pompeii: The life of a Roman town, 2008. She is Classics editor of the TLS.
Similar posts: ancient greek medicine
- Mood:bad
- Music:Michael Jackson
